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Indoxyl Sulfate-Mediated Blood–Brain Barrier Damage in Chronic Kidney Disease
Supplementation with Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) Larvae Grown on Deoxynivalenol-Contaminated Substrate Improves Growth and Gut Integrity in Broilers
Masseter Muscle Morphometric Changes After Botulinum Toxin Type A Injection: A Prospective 3-Month Study
LyeTx I mnΔKL, a New Synthetic Peptide Derived from a Lycosa erythrognatha Toxin, with Potent In Vitro and In Vivo Activity Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus
Development of an Innovative Galleria mellonella Model for Ricin Poisoning

Journal Description

Toxins

Toxins is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal related to toxinology and all kinds of toxins (biotoxins) from animals, microbes and plants, and published monthly online by MDPI. The French Society of Toxinology (SFET), International Society for Mycotoxicology (ISM), Japanese Society of Mycotoxicology (JSMYCO) and European Uremic Toxins (EUTox) Work Group are affiliated with Toxins and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, MEDLINE, PMC, Embase, CAPlus / SciFinder, AGRIS, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Toxicology) / CiteScore - Q1 (Toxicology)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 18 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2026).
Recognition of Reviewers: Reviewers whose reports are timely and of high quality receive an APC discount voucher for a future publication in an MDPI journal. Become a reviewer.
Sections: published in 6 topical sections.

Impact Factor: 4.0 (2025); 5-Year Impact Factor: 4.7 (2025)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2072-6651

Latest Articles

14 pages, 523 KB

Open AccessReview

Bacterial Superantigen-Mediated Toxic Shock: Hyperinflammatory Trajectories and Extracorporeal Immunomodulation in Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome

by Kuo-Hao Lo, Kuo-Cheng Lu, Yen-Hung Liu and Yi-Chou Hou

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 388; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090388 - 8 Sep 2026

Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS) is a fulminant manifestation of invasive group A Streptococcus infection characterized by superantigen-driven hyperinflammation, refractory shock, and rapidly progressive multiorgan dysfunction. Despite antimicrobial therapy, source control, intravenous immunoglobulin, and intensive organ support, some patients deteriorate rapidly, prompting interest [...] Read more.

Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS) is a fulminant manifestation of invasive group A Streptococcus infection characterized by superantigen-driven hyperinflammation, refractory shock, and rapidly progressive multiorgan dysfunction. Despite antimicrobial therapy, source control, intravenous immunoglobulin, and intensive organ support, some patients deteriorate rapidly, prompting interest in extracorporeal immunomodulation. This narrative review examines the biological rationale and clinical experience of hemoadsorption in STSS, supported by an illustrative case and comparison with published reports. Our patient developed vasopressor-dependent shock, acute kidney injury, thrombocytopenia, hepatic and myocardial injury, hyperlactatemia, and metabolic acidosis within 48 h. CytoSorb was integrated with continuous venovenous hemofiltration during ongoing deterioration, followed by hemodynamic and organ recovery; however, concurrent therapies preclude attribution of benefit to hemoadsorption. Published cases show a similar pattern, with extracorporeal escalation initiated during refractory shock and accumulating organ dysfunction rather than at a predefined biomarker threshold. Although experimental and observational evidence supports the biological activity of hemoadsorption, clinical evidence remains insufficient to establish a survival benefit. Current evidence does not support routine hemoadsorption for STSS. A rapidly progressive, multidimensional hyperinflammatory trajectory may instead provide a framework for future studies of patient selection and treatment timing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Staphylococcus aureus Toxins)

3 pages, 136 KB

Open AccessEditorial

The Role of Uremic Toxins in Comorbidities of Chronic Kidney Disease

by Suguru Yamamoto

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 387; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090387 - 7 Sep 2026

The number of patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) has increased worldwide. Although treatments to slow the progression of CKD and address CKD-related systemic disorders have advanced, the mortality risk for CKD patients, particularly those on dialysis, remains high[...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Uremic Toxins in Comorbidities of Chronic Kidney Disease)

15 pages, 530 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Efficacy of an Aflatoxin Binder in Holstein Dairy Cows in Perú Under Field Conditions

by Ivonne Salazar-Rodríguez, Iván López, Patricia Glorio-Paulet, Isabel Cristina Molina-Botero, Arturo Gerardo Valdivia-Flores and Carlos Gómez-Bravo

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090386 - 7 Sep 2026

The strategy of adding mycotoxin binders (MTBs) to feed lactating cows to reduce the absorption of aflatoxins (AFs) in the gastrointestinal tract and reduce milk contamination by hydroxylated AF compounds, especially AFM1, to below the maximum contaminant level (MCL) has become widespread. However, [...] Read more.

The strategy of adding mycotoxin binders (MTBs) to feed lactating cows to reduce the absorption of aflatoxins (AFs) in the gastrointestinal tract and reduce milk contamination by hydroxylated AF compounds, especially AFM1, to below the maximum contaminant level (MCL) has become widespread. However, the indiscriminate use of MTBs is very common. The objective of the study was to determine, under field conditions, the efficacy of an MTB in reducing AFM1 contamination in cow’s milk. Feed and raw milk were evaluated on-farm using lateral flow immunochromatography devices. In a 2 × 2 Latin square design, in two separate test periods, two diets were administered consecutively to each of twelve Holstein cows (multiparous, 220 ± 20 lactation days): 1: Basal diet naturally contaminated (120 AFB1 µg/d); 2: Basal diet plus an MTB (calcium carbonate and yeast fragments; 150 g/d). MTB intake effectively reduced the mean concentration, daily excretion, and percentage transfer rate of AFM1 in milk (0.724 ± 0.045 to 0.479 ± 0.055 µg/kg, p < 0.01; 15.6 ± 1.7 to 9.7 ± 1.5 µg/d, p < 0.05; and 13.0 ± 1.4 to 8.1 ± 1.3%, p < 0.05, respectively). These results highlight the need to evaluate, under field conditions, the effectiveness of MTBs as part of a mycotoxin contamination control program on dairy farms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aflatoxins: Contamination, Analysis and Control)

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19 pages, 19231 KB

Open AccessArticle

On the Application of Respirometric System on Hazelnut Samples to Predict Aflatoxin Production

by Francesca Bosco, Chiara Mollea, Gabriele Baldissone, Micaela Demichela and Davide Fissore

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 385; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090385 - 6 Sep 2026

In the present work, the correlation between the respirometric activity and the aflatoxin synthesis of the hazelnut microbiota has been investigated. Microcosms containing a monolayer of hazelnuts were maintained at controlled conditions in terms of temperature and humidity. To monitor microbial growth, CO [...] Read more.

In the present work, the correlation between the respirometric activity and the aflatoxin synthesis of the hazelnut microbiota has been investigated. Microcosms containing a monolayer of hazelnuts were maintained at controlled conditions in terms of temperature and humidity. To monitor microbial growth, CO₂ was evaluated along with the specific O₂ uptake rate, RO₂, measured by a respirometric sensor, usually applied in the evaluation of soil microbial activity. The respiratory quotient (RQ) was calculated and a linear relationship between RQ and produced aflatoxins was obtained. Depending on incubation time, four main clusters of RQ values were identified: for higher incubation time (15–40 days) RQ was lower than 2 and an aflatoxin amount of 0.31–0.35 μg/kg was observed. CO₂, O₂, and aflatoxin data have been used to develop an autoregressive model and excellent agreement between measurements and estimations was obtained. In most cases, an error lower than 1% on the estimated value of the mycotoxin amount revealed the accuracy of the evaluation of the RQ. The present work represents the first attempt to develop an effective method, fast and low-cost, for the in-line monitoring of mycotoxin contamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)

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20 pages, 5602 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Fermentation, Microbiome and Metabolomic Profiles Reveal Rumen Lipotoxicity Induced by the Masked Mycotoxin Zearalenone-14-Glucoside

by Zixin Wang, Mingzhu Chen, Jialei Liu, Tao Wang, Zhe Sun and Xiaolu Jin

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 384; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090384 - 6 Sep 2026

The ubiquitous presence of modified mycotoxins such as zearalenone-14-glucoside (ZEN-14G) in agricultural resources presents a critical challenge to livestock safety, specifically regarding their capacity to disrupt lipid metabolism and fermentation in the rumen. This study aimed to evaluate the dose- and time-dependent direct [...] Read more.

The ubiquitous presence of modified mycotoxins such as zearalenone-14-glucoside (ZEN-14G) in agricultural resources presents a critical challenge to livestock safety, specifically regarding their capacity to disrupt lipid metabolism and fermentation in the rumen. This study aimed to evaluate the dose- and time-dependent direct effects of ZEN-14G on rumen fermentation characteristics, nutrient disappearance, and mycotoxin biotransformation under controlled in vitro conditions, and to explore the associated microbial and metabolic responses. An in vitro batch fermentation system was established with three ZEN-14G doses, namely control (CON), low dosage (GL), and high dosage (GH), across three time points (6, 12, and 24 h). Basic fermentation parameters, fat disappearance rates, and ZEN-14G metabolites were quantified, while 16S rRNA gene sequencing and untargeted metabolomics were conducted specifically on 24 h endpoint samples from the CON and GH groups to investigate downstream mechanistic disruptions. The results showed that while baseline pH homeostasis remained unaffected across groups, ZEN-14G dose-dependently inhibited fat disappearance, with the GH group exhibiting a significant reduction throughout fermentation. Targeted quantification confirmed that ZEN-14G was predominantly deglucosylated to free ZEN and reduced to α/β-ZEL. Endpoint multi-omics revealed that although overall α/β-diversity was maintained at 24 h, ZEN-14G induced fine-scale strain-level replacement (12% shared ASVs), marked by the depletion of the key lipolytic bacterium Prevotella sp. R79. Untargeted metabolomics showed marked disruptions in sphingolipid metabolism and linoleic acid oxidation, where the accumulation of cytotoxic oxidized fatty acids (12,13-EpOME) and membrane turnover markers (sphingosine) positively correlated with enriched Bacillota. In summary, under macroscopic acid–base homeostasis, masked ZEN-14G directly impairs ruminal lipid metabolism, alters microbial community structure at the strain level, and perturbs cell membrane lipid turnover strictly within an in vitro system. These findings establish a key mechanistic baseline for masked mycotoxin biotransformation in the rumen, highlighting the necessity for future in vivo feeding trials to fully evaluate their systemic risk profile in ruminants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)

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49 pages, 624 KB

Open AccessReview

Global Occurrence, Co-Contamination Patterns, and Toxic Effects of Mycotoxins in Fish Feed: A Multi-Species Perspective Review

by Queenta Ngum Nji and Patrick Berka Njobeh

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 383; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090383 - 6 Sep 2026

Aquaculture has become the fastest-growing food-production sector worldwide, with increasing reliance on plant-based feed ingredients such as maize, soybean, wheat, rice, and oilseed meals. Although these ingredients reduce dependence on fishmeal, they are highly susceptible to fungal contamination and subsequent mycotoxin production. Global [...] Read more.

Aquaculture has become the fastest-growing food-production sector worldwide, with increasing reliance on plant-based feed ingredients such as maize, soybean, wheat, rice, and oilseed meals. Although these ingredients reduce dependence on fishmeal, they are highly susceptible to fungal contamination and subsequent mycotoxin production. Global surveys reveal widespread contamination of aquafeeds with major regulated mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, and T-2 toxin, alongside emerging toxins such as enniatins, beauvericins, and sterigmatocystin metabolites. Aflatoxin B₁ is the most prevalent and toxic mycotoxin, with contamination prevalence often exceeding 80–100% in Africa and Asia with contamination levels surpassing 400 µg/kg in some regions of these continents. Fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone are also commonly detected, with fumonisins levels occasionally exceeding 7000 µg/kg. Mycotoxins induce diverse toxic effects in fish, including growth suppression, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, immunosuppression, oxidative stress, reproductive dysfunction, and mortality. Collectively, these findings highlight the urgent need for improved surveillance, feed management, and harmonized regulations addressing multi-mycotoxin exposure to safeguard aquaculture productivity, fish, and public health. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the global mycotoxin contamination patterns, analytical detection methods in fish feed and processed seafood as well as the toxicological effects of mycotoxins, with emphasis on species-specific responses and food safety implications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Occurrence, Toxicology, and Effects on Animals, Animal Feeds and Detoxification Methods)

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20 pages, 1572 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Analyses of the Mechanisms Underlying Zearalenone Removal by Lactobacillus paracasei

by Min Gan, Peirong Chen, Rui Zeng, Fuhua Wang and Yarong Zhao

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 382; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090382 - 4 Sep 2026

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species that is harmful to agricultural crops. Therefore, the prevention and control of ZEN contamination is an important concern for food safety. Lactobacillus paracasei 85 is a well-recognized probiotic with considerable potential for mycotoxin biocontrol [...] Read more.

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species that is harmful to agricultural crops. Therefore, the prevention and control of ZEN contamination is an important concern for food safety. Lactobacillus paracasei 85 is a well-recognized probiotic with considerable potential for mycotoxin biocontrol owing to its diverse probiotic properties and antimicrobial activity. Based on its reported potential, we aimed to evaluate its ability to degrade ZEN using degradation assays under optimal conditions. Transcriptome sequencing, untargeted metabolomics, and integrated bioinformatics analyses were conducted to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying ZEN removal. Transcriptomic analysis showed that the strain activated central carbon and secondary metabolism during ZEN removal, and all seven differentially expressed genes closely related to carbohydrate metabolism were downregulated. Metabolomic analysis revealed that lipid and amino acid metabolism, in addition to carbohydrate metabolism, played important roles in ZEN removal. Correlation analysis between carbohydrate metabolism-related genes and their metabolites revealed that these genes were significantly associated with four metabolites: myo-inositol, guanosine, glycolic acid, and trehalose. As key nodes in the carbohydrate metabolism pathway, changes in the expression of these four metabolites and their interactions with genes may represent key regulatory factors responsible for the overall downregulation of carbohydrate metabolism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Mycotoxins: Contamination, Prevention and Control, Toxic Mechanisms and Detoxification Strategies)

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20 pages, 794 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mycotoxin Notifications in the European Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF): Temporal Trends and Implications for Food Safety and Exposure

by Sandra Juárez-García, Ana Isabel Fernández-Díez, Rafael Mora-Medina, Nahúm Ayala-Soldado, Antonio Lora-Benitez, Rosario Moyano-Salvago and Ana María Molina-López

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 381; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090381 - 4 Sep 2026

Mycotoxin contamination in food and feed remains a major public health concern because of its potential toxicological impact and its global economic implications. Aflatoxins and ochratoxin A are of particular concern due to their carcinogenic, hepatotoxic, and nephrotoxic effects, highlighting the need for [...] Read more.

Mycotoxin contamination in food and feed remains a major public health concern because of its potential toxicological impact and its global economic implications. Aflatoxins and ochratoxin A are of particular concern due to their carcinogenic, hepatotoxic, and nephrotoxic effects, highlighting the need for effective surveillance systems to reduce dietary exposure in the population. This study analyzes 2479 mycotoxin-related notifications concerning both food and feed reported through the iRASFF system during the period 2020–2024, with the aim of characterizing temporal notification trends, identifying the most affected food products and geographical regions, and evaluating the evolution of control strategies implemented by competent authorities. The results did not show a statistically significant long-term increasing trend in the number of mycotoxin notifications, although interannual fluctuations may reflect both changes in contamination patterns and improvements in detection and reporting systems. Products originating outside the European Union accounted for 90.44% of notifications and showed a significantly higher mean number of notifications than products originating within the European Union. Turkey (24%) and the United States (14%) were the most frequently reported countries of origin at a global level. Aflatoxins were the most frequently detected mycotoxins in food (84%), followed by ochratoxin A (15%), mainly affecting nuts, cereals, fruits, vegetables and herbs and spices. These findings demonstrate that mycotoxins continue to represent a persistent challenge for European food safety. Strengthening surveillance systems, enhancing international cooperation, and adapting control strategies to emerging environmental and trade-related factors are essential to minimize consumer exposure, particularly to compounds with genotoxic and carcinogenic potential, and to improve risk management within the food supply chain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins Along the Food Chain: Detection, Contamination and Control)

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19 pages, 2271 KB

Open AccessArticle

Toxic Plants Potentially Impacting the Health Status of Livestock in St. Kitts—A Surveillance Study

by Andras-Laszlo Nagy, Francesca Caloni, Regina Tose Kemper, Sofia Gonzalez Lleras, Heather Beigh, Christian DeJean, Maurice Matthew and Georgios Paraschou

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 380; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090380 (registering DOI) - 3 Sep 2026

Tropical regions are characterized by exceptional biodiversity, including extremely diverse flora. Many plants produce chemical compounds that function as defense mechanisms, some of which are toxic to mammals, including livestock species. However, documentation of toxic plants in the Caribbean region remains limited. The [...] Read more.

Tropical regions are characterized by exceptional biodiversity, including extremely diverse flora. Many plants produce chemical compounds that function as defense mechanisms, some of which are toxic to mammals, including livestock species. However, documentation of toxic plants in the Caribbean region remains limited. The present study aimed to identify toxic and potentially toxic plant species affecting livestock on the island of Saint Christopher (St. Kitts) through surveys of a representative number of farms across all nine parishes. An extensive literature review was performed in order to characterize the local flora and to identify plant species with known or suspected toxic potential. Farm visits were conducted using a structured surveillance questionnaire developed by the authors. During these visits, representative photographs of commonly encountered toxic plants were taken. The identified plant species were classified according to the chemical nature of their active ingredient, and their main clinical effects were described. Ten plant species (Abrus precatorius, Senna occidentalis, Catharanthus roseus, Crotalaria retusa, Datura stramonium, Manihot esculenta, Mimosa pudica, Nerium oleander, Nicotiana tabacum and Ricinus communis) were found to be widespread throughout the island and have been documented in the literature as toxic to livestock. By knowing the distribution of these species, high-risk areas and pastures can be identified, thereby supporting targeted prevention and more effective management of future plant-associated toxicosis outbreaks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity of Plant Natural Products and Their Applications)

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13 pages, 532 KB

Open AccessArticle

OnabotulinumtoxinA Improves Sleep Quality in Patients with Chronic Migraine: A Prospective Real-World Study

by Giovanna Viticchi, Lorenzo Falsetti, Marco Bartolini, Sergio Salvemini, Gioacchino De Vanna, Eleonora Beccacece, Najdi Tanuzi and Mauro Silvestrini

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090379 - 3 Sep 2026

Sleep disturbances are highly prevalent in patients with chronic migraine (CM) and are increasingly recognized as major contributors to disease burden and headache chronification. Growing evidence suggests that dysregulation of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) signaling and central sensitization may represent common biological mechanisms [...] Read more.

Sleep disturbances are highly prevalent in patients with chronic migraine (CM) and are increasingly recognized as major contributors to disease burden and headache chronification. Growing evidence suggests that dysregulation of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) signaling and central sensitization may represent common biological mechanisms linking migraine and sleep impairment. OnabotulinumtoxinA (OBT-A), an established preventive treatment for CM, inhibits the release of CGRP and other nociceptive mediators from trigeminal sensory neurons, thereby reducing peripheral and central sensitization. However, its effects on sleep quality remain incompletely characterized. The aim of this prospective real-world observational pilot study was to evaluate the impact of OBT-A treatment on sleep quality in patients with CM. Consecutive patients initiating OBT-A therapy at a tertiary headache center were enrolled and assessed at baseline (before the first OBT-A treatment cycle) and after three months, immediately before the second scheduled administration, using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), alongside measures of migraine frequency, acute medication use, migraine-related disability, and headache impact. Fifteen patients completed follow-up evaluations. OBT-A treatment was associated with significant improvements across all clinical outcomes. Median monthly migraine days decreased from 18 to 10 (adjusted p = 0.006), while acute medication use, MIDAS scores, and HIT-6 scores were significantly reduced. Sleep quality improved markedly, with median PSQI scores decreasing from 10 to 6 (adjusted p = 0.006). Eleven of 15 patients (73.3%) achieved a ≥3-point reduction in PSQI, and the proportion of participants with pathological sleep quality (PSQI > 5) decreased from 86.7% to 53.3%. Although this categorical improvement did not reach statistical significance (exact p = 0.063), likely due to the limited sample size, it may nonetheless suggest a beneficial effect on sleep quality, although the lack of statistical significance warrants cautious interpretation. These findings provide preliminary real-world evidence that OBT-A treatment is associated with improved subjective sleep quality in patients with chronic migraine. Improvements in sleep quality occurred alongside reductions in migraine frequency, acute medication use, disability, and headache impact. Given the observational and uncontrolled design of the study, it remains unclear whether sleep improvement reflects a direct effect of OBT-A or occurs secondarily to improvements in migraine-related outcomes. Larger prospective controlled studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms underlying sleep improvement and its relationship with treatment response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Botulinum Neurotoxin in Headache or Facial Pain Disorders)

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14 pages, 11843 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Dystonia 3×3: A Training Guideline for Beginners in Botulinum Neurotoxin Treatment of Cervical Dystonia

by Sebastian Paus, Andreas Funke, Jürgen Hamacher, Bernhard Haslinger, Jan Heckelmann, Chi Wang Ip, Wolfgang H. Jost, Anatol Kivi, Stephan Klebe, John-Ih Lee, Ebba Lohmann, Frederic Mack, Axel Schramm, Andrea Stenner, Pawel Tacik, Uwe Walter and David T. Weise

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090378 - 2 Sep 2026

Cervical dystonia (CD) is a hyperkinetic movement disorder characterized by involuntary muscle contractions leading to abnormal postures of the head and neck. The injection of botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT-A) into the muscles involved is the treatment of choice for CD. BoNT-A therapy [...] Read more.

Cervical dystonia (CD) is a hyperkinetic movement disorder characterized by involuntary muscle contractions leading to abnormal postures of the head and neck. The injection of botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNT-A) into the muscles involved is the treatment of choice for CD. BoNT-A therapy of CD requires appropriate training, which has not been standardized in Germany. To address the key challenges in BoNT-A education, an expert panel developed a simplified step-by-step treatment guideline for beginners, adapted from the established Col-Cap-Concept (“Dystonia 3×3”). Based on expert consensus, recommendations were developed for the core clinical elements of BoNT-A treatment in CD—recognition of the movement pattern, identification of target muscles, development of an injection plan, ultrasound-guided injection, and dosing, taking into account the target audience of the guideline. As such, Dystonia 3×3 provides a user-friendly beginner’s guidebook, enhancing accessibility and standardization of CD treatment training. Further research is required to evaluate its clinical efficacy and suitability for training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Toxins)

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25 pages, 2855 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of 113 Mycotoxins and Plant Toxins in Wheat, Soy and Pea Protein Concentrates from the German Market Reveals, i.a., a High Prevalence of Alterperylenol in Wheat Gluten

by Ahmed H. El-Khatib, Arnold Bahlmann, Christoph Hutzler and Stefan Weigel

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090377 - 2 Sep 2026

Wheat, soy and pea protein isolates used for the production of plant-based meat alternatives were analyzed for 87 mycotoxins and 26 plant toxins by means of a validated QuEChERS-based LC-MS/MS multi-method. For wheat gluten, the results revealed the presence of Alternaria toxins, deoxynivalenol, [...] Read more.

Wheat, soy and pea protein isolates used for the production of plant-based meat alternatives were analyzed for 87 mycotoxins and 26 plant toxins by means of a validated QuEChERS-based LC-MS/MS multi-method. For wheat gluten, the results revealed the presence of Alternaria toxins, deoxynivalenol, enniatins, ergot alkaloids and ochratoxin A (OTA). For soy protein, beauvericin, enniatin B and OTA were the most frequently detected mycotoxins, while for pea protein, OTA was the most frequently detected mycotoxin. From plant toxins, the tropane alkaloids atropine and scopolamine were detected in wheat gluten and soy protein. The emerging Alternaria toxin alterperylenol was reported for the first time in wheat gluten (85% of samples). OTA was present at high levels in all three matrices (exceeding the EU maximum level in one wheat gluten sample). Ergot alkaloids were found in 95% of wheat gluten samples, but none exceeded the ML. The highest co-occurrence of different toxins was observed in wheat gluten (median: 22, max: 27 toxins/sample), followed by soy protein (median: five, max: nine toxins/sample) and pea protein (median: one, max: five toxins/sample). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)

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30 pages, 2057 KB

Open AccessReview

Phytotoxins Produced by Diplodia and Other Fungal Species Involved in Oak (Quercus) Diseases

by Antonio Evidente

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 376; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090376 - 31 Aug 2026

Forests are an indispensable resource for human existence in the different regions of the world. Forests are often concentrated in a few parts and vary in size. The most important and extensive green reserve on Earth is the Amazon rainforest. Unfortunately, the forests [...] Read more.

Forests are an indispensable resource for human existence in the different regions of the world. Forests are often concentrated in a few parts and vary in size. The most important and extensive green reserve on Earth is the Amazon rainforest. Unfortunately, the forests are continually suffering massive losses due to abiotic stresses and deforestation to obtain other arable lands and microbial diseases, particularly those caused by pathogenic fungi. Pathogenic fungi play an important role in inducing oak decline, which is one of the most relevant forest diseases globally. The pathogens also affect disease development and its global distribution. In this review, the phytotoxins produced by fungal pathogens of different oak species in various world regions are described in depth. In particular, the isolation, the chemistry and biology of phytotoxins synthesized by oak pathogenic fungi are reported, and their role in pathogenesis is also discussed. For some phytotoxins, the enantioselective synthesis, the structure–biological activity relationships, and their utilization in agro-industry and medical applications are also discussed. In addition, for the Diplodia species, the comparison between their secondary metabolite profile and taxonomy with those of fungal pathogens of other close forest plants is discussed. Thus, fungal diseases of numerous oak trees and the serious damages they cause to the forest heritage are described, as well as the chemical and biological properties and results of some of the structure–activity relationship (SAR) studies of the phytotoxins involved. In addition, for the Diplodia species both phylogenetically closely related and unrelated, comparison between their secondary metabolite profile with those of pathogens of other close forest plants, in combination with traditional taxonomic characteristics, has helped to better understand the pathogenic process relationships within the same fungal f the pathogenic process within the same fungal family. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytotoxin Produced by Fungi Pathogen for Forest Plants)

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3 pages, 160 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial Summary for the Special Issue “Prospective Studies on Harmful Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins”

by Ekaterina N. Chernova and Sophia Barinova

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 375; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090375 - 31 Aug 2026

In recent decades, the problem of harmful algal blooms (HABs) in various water bodies has gained widespread recognition worldwide [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Prospective Studies on Harmful Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins)

28 pages, 4293 KB

Open AccessReview

The Internal Disintegration Effect in Microbial Aflatoxin Control Systems: From Detoxification to Suppression of Aflatoxin Biosynthesis in Toxigenic Fungi

by Xue Zhang, Esa Abiso Godana, Kaili Wang, Hongyin Zhang and Qiya Yang

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 374; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090374 - 30 Aug 2026

Aflatoxins (AFs) are highly carcinogenic mycotoxins produced by toxigenic fungi, posing serious threats to food safety, animal production, and human health. Microbial aflatoxin control has recently emerged as a promising, sustainable, and environmentally friendly strategy for reducing aflatoxin contamination. However, growing evidence suggests [...] Read more.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are highly carcinogenic mycotoxins produced by toxigenic fungi, posing serious threats to food safety, animal production, and human health. Microbial aflatoxin control has recently emerged as a promising, sustainable, and environmentally friendly strategy for reducing aflatoxin contamination. However, growing evidence suggests that reductions in AF levels within microbial treatment systems may arise not only from direct toxin degradation, but also from inhibition of fungal growth, adsorption or sequestration processes, and suppression of AF biosynthesis. In microbial co-culture systems involving viable toxigenic fungi, exogenous microorganisms and their metabolites can establish persistent ecological stress through nutrient competition, oxidative stress, and interspecies signaling. These stresses activate fungal cell wall integrity pathways, MAPK signaling cascades, and transcriptional regulatory networks, leading to membrane remodeling, alterations in lipid and energy metabolism, and redistribution of cellular resources. As a consequence, fungal physiology progressively shifts from a growth- and toxin-production-oriented state toward a survival- and defense-oriented state, resulting in impaired growth and reduced AF biosynthesis. This review proposes the internal disintegration framework, which conceptualizes AF suppression as a progressive loss of toxin-producing capacity caused by sustained microbial-induced physiological remodeling rather than solely by fungal growth inhibition or toxin degradation. It will provide new perspectives for developing precise, efficient, and eco-friendly dual-target control strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradation and Biodetoxification of Mycotoxins)

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21 pages, 1353 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Human Health Effects of Chronic Microcystin Exposure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Hepatic, Renal, and Metabolic Outcomes

by Seong-Dae Moon, Dae-Sik Hwang, Jung-Suk Lee, Su-Ok Hwang, Hans W. Paerl and Baik-Ho Kim

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 373; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090373 - 30 Aug 2026

Microcystins (MCs) are cyanobacterial hepatotoxins that contaminate bloom-affected freshwater, drinking-water sources, aquatic food webs, and recreational environments. Human evidence for chronic or repeated exposure remains fragmented across study designs and organ systems. We systematically reviewed epidemiological evidence for hepatic, renal, and metabolic outcomes [...] Read more.

Microcystins (MCs) are cyanobacterial hepatotoxins that contaminate bloom-affected freshwater, drinking-water sources, aquatic food webs, and recreational environments. Human evidence for chronic or repeated exposure remains fragmented across study designs and organ systems. We systematically reviewed epidemiological evidence for hepatic, renal, and metabolic outcomes and integrated supporting mechanistic toxicology. PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science searches identified 9021 records published from 1990 to 2025; an update search was conducted in April 2026. Risk of bias was assessed using a domain-based framework adapted from the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale and OHAT. The review was not prospectively registered. The qualitative evidence architecture retained 192 studies: 34 human epidemiological studies and 158 supporting mechanistic or contextual studies. Only seven independent adjusted estimates met the one-study–one-main-estimate rule for the primary quantitative synthesis. The hepatic meta-analysis included two estimates (OR 2.13; 95% CI, 1.29–3.53), the renal finding was a descriptive single-study estimate (OR 4.81; 95% CI, 1.96–11.81), and the metabolic meta-analysis included four estimates (OR 1.73; 95% CI, 1.00–2.98) with substantial heterogeneity (I² = 91%; prediction interval, 0.56–5.36). Mechanistic evidence supported biological plausibility but was not treated as causal human evidence. Human evidence was relatively more consistent for hepatic outcomes, although it remained limited to two independent studies with different endpoints; renal and metabolic findings remain sparse or heterogeneous. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Risk Assessment of Cyanotoxins)

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Open AccessArticle

Efficacy of Stilbenoid-Enriched Vine Root Extracts in Controlling Aspergillus carbonarius Growth and Ochratoxin A Production in Grapes

by Trang Tran-Minh, Marie-France Corio-Costet, Marie Laurens, Nils Hocquemiller, Jessica Vallance, Marie-Noëlle Bonnin-Verdal, Pierre Waffo-Téguo, Florence Richard-Forget and Vessela Atanasova

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090372 - 29 Aug 2026

With increased mycotoxin contamination, the search for eco-friendly biocontrol strategies has become increasingly important. This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of stilbenoid-enriched Merlot (Me) and Tannat (Ta) vine root extracts, and their major active molecule, vitisin B (VIT), against Aspergillus carbonarius growth [...] Read more.

With increased mycotoxin contamination, the search for eco-friendly biocontrol strategies has become increasingly important. This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of stilbenoid-enriched Merlot (Me) and Tannat (Ta) vine root extracts, and their major active molecule, vitisin B (VIT), against Aspergillus carbonarius growth and its ochratoxin A (OTA) production using in vitro liquid and solid, and ex vivo grape-berry assays. In liquid assay, Me and Ta (125 mg/L) and VIT (36 mg/L) significantly inhibited extracellular OTA. Additionally, VIT temporarily reduced both fungal growth and total OTA. Transcriptomics showed that VIT and Me slightly induced OTA biosynthesis genes. In solid and ex vivo assays, doses above 1 g/L decreased OTA production by up to 48% without impacting fungal growth. This lack of correlation suggested a distinct regulatory response to extract-induced stress. Importantly, the fungicide tebuconazole showed method-dependent effects. On in vitro solid medium, it significantly inhibited the fungal growth without affecting OTA yield, whereas in ex vivo berry assays, it significantly inhibited both. Our findings emphasize the potential of stilbenoid-enriched extracts as biocontrol agents targeting OTA production, highlighting the value of multi-assay evaluations. Future studies should elucidate their modes of action and optimize their efficacy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Food Safety: Challenges and Biocontrol Strategies)

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Open AccessArticle

Biomarkers of Exposure to Low Dietary Fumonisin, Deoxynivalenol, and Zearalenone Concentrations in Turkeys and Chickens

by Elodie Lassallette and Philippe Guerre

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 371; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090371 - 28 Aug 2026

Fusarium mycotoxins are major contaminants of human and animal feed and pose significant risks to health. A recent recommendation from the European Commission drastically decreased the maximum tolerated concentrations of fumonisins (FBs) and deoxynivalenol (DON) in poultry feed. The objectives of this study [...] Read more.

Fusarium mycotoxins are major contaminants of human and animal feed and pose significant risks to health. A recent recommendation from the European Commission drastically decreased the maximum tolerated concentrations of fumonisins (FBs) and deoxynivalenol (DON) in poultry feed. The objectives of this study were to characterize the effects of a 14-day exposure to a diet containing 7.5 mg FB1 + FB2/kg, 2.5 mg DON/kg and 0.6 mg zearalenone (FDZ diet) in turkeys and chickens, and to assess the persistence of these effects following withdrawal of the contaminated diet. No clinical signs of toxicity were observed in either species, and markers of hepatic oxidative damage remained unchanged. In contrast, sphingolipidome alterations were detected, being more pronounced in turkeys than chickens and more persistent in the liver than in plasma. The C22–C24:C16 ratios measured across several sphingolipid (SL) classes emerged as sensitive biomarkers of FB exposure, whereas the sphinganine:sphingosine ratio (Sa:So) remained unchanged. Determination of the 90th percentile (P90) thresholds for SL ratios in unexposed animals provided good-to-excellent discrimination between exposed and unexposed animals. Notably, this conservative percentile-based approach detected FB exposure using the Sa:So ratio despite the absence of significant differences in group means. Multivariate analysis of the complete sphingolipidome provided the highest discriminatory power, distinguishing exposed from unexposed turkeys and chickens for up to four days after withdrawal of the FDZ diet. Finally, the biological significance of alterations in d18:1P, 18:0/2:0, 18:1/16:0, and dihydrosphingolipids induced by the FDZ diet is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Mycotoxins)

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Open AccessArticle

Pain-Specific Benefits of Higher-Dose Neubotulinum Toxin Type A in Cervical Dystonia: A Multicenter Randomized Double-Blind Crossover Trial

by Arkhom Arayawichanont and Subsai Kongsaengdao

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 370; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090370 - 28 Aug 2026

Pain is a major contributor to disability in cervical dystonia (CD) and may persist despite improvement in abnormal head posture after botulinum toxin treatment. Whether increasing the dose of Neubotulinum toxin type A (Neu-BoNT-A) provides additional analgesic benefit without compromising safety remains uncertain. [...] Read more.

Pain is a major contributor to disability in cervical dystonia (CD) and may persist despite improvement in abnormal head posture after botulinum toxin treatment. Whether increasing the dose of Neubotulinum toxin type A (Neu-BoNT-A) provides additional analgesic benefit without compromising safety remains uncertain. In this prospective, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, two-period crossover trial, 50 adults with CD were randomized 1:1 to Neu-BoNT-A 100 U followed by 50 U or 50 U followed by 100 U, with each treatment period lasting 12 weeks. The principal between-dose TWSTRS analysis used a crossover mixed-effects model including treatment, period, and randomized sequence, with participant as a random effect. TWSTRS total, severity, and disability did not differ significantly between regimens. Neu-BoNT-A 100 U produced greater improvement in TWSTRS pain (adjusted 100 U minus 50 U difference, −1.83 points; 95% CI, −2.93 to −0.73; p = 0.0011). The pain finding remained significant in a robust GEE sensitivity analysis (difference, −1.83 points; 95% CI, −3.04 to −0.62; p = 0.003). CDIP-58 psychosocial functioning also improved more with 100 U (nominal p = 0.001). In a Holm sensitivity analysis across all 24 efficacy comparisons, TWSTRS pain and CDIP-58 psychosocial functioning remained significant (adjusted p ≈ 0.025 and 0.024, respectively); no other comparison remained significant. No serious adverse events occurred. Neu-BoNT-A 100 U did not improve overall CD severity compared with 50 U but was associated with greater pain relief and improved psychosocial functioning without compromising tolerability. These secondary findings remained significant after multiplicity adjustment but should be interpreted in the context of the nonsignificant overall TWSTRS result and require confirmation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Efficacy of Botulinum Toxin in Orofacial Pain)

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Open AccessEditorial

Mycotoxins in Farm Animals: Health Disorders and Preventive Strategies

by Vasileios G. Papatsiros

Toxins 2026, 18(9), 369; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18090369 - 27 Aug 2026

Mycotoxin contamination of feedstuffs remains one of the most persistent and economically damaging challenges confronting global animal production [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Farm Animals: Health Disorders and Preventive Strategies)

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