Journal of Intelligence

15 pages, 1456 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Artificial Intelligence in Informal Digital Learning of English: A Systematic Review of Engagement Mechanisms and Learning Processes in Intelligent Learning Systems

by Lihang Guan and Qingbo Yang

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080189 - 18 Aug 2026

Abstract

Artificial intelligence (AI) creates personalized, interactive, and low-risk learning opportunities for informal digital learning of English (IDLE). However, effective AI tools do not necessarily lead learners to engage autonomously or productively. Guided by the person–behavior–environment framework of social cognitive theory, this systematic review [...] Read more.

Artificial intelligence (AI) creates personalized, interactive, and low-risk learning opportunities for informal digital learning of English (IDLE). However, effective AI tools do not necessarily lead learners to engage autonomously or productively. Guided by the person–behavior–environment framework of social cognitive theory, this systematic review synthesized 58 empirical studies published in SSCI-indexed journals between 2020 and 2025 to examine how AI affordances are translated into learning behaviors and intelligence-related processes in AI-mediated IDLE. Speech recognition, natural language processing, and personalized feedback were the most frequently investigated affordances, providing opportunities to observe, imitate, and adapt authentic language use. Engagement was mediated primarily by emotional, motivational, and self-belief mechanisms. These mechanisms could facilitate or hinder engagement depending on technological accuracy, perceived human responsiveness, learner goals, and proficiency-task alignment. From an intelligence perspective, the findings illustrate how learners evaluate AI-generated information, regulate affect and motivation, calibrate self-perceptions, and adapt learning behaviors. Thus, AI-mediated IDLE may serve as a site for activating adaptive intelligence and learner self-regulation through context-sensitive evaluation, regulation, and behavioral adaptation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Informal Digital Language Learning as a Site for Activating and Developing Intelligence)

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18 pages, 1472 KB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Efficacy as a Common Pathway: How Non-Cognitive Individual Differences Shape Academic Procrastination

by Şule Betül Tosuntaş

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080188 - 17 Aug 2026

Abstract

Academic procrastination is a widespread self-regulatory failure among university students and a costly one for both academic achievement and psychological well-being. In this study, procrastination was examined within the framework of non-cognitive individual differences. The model tested here posits that perfectionism and locus [...] Read more.

Academic procrastination is a widespread self-regulatory failure among university students and a costly one for both academic achievement and psychological well-being. In this study, procrastination was examined within the framework of non-cognitive individual differences. The model tested here posits that perfectionism and locus of control affect procrastination through negative automatic thoughts and general self-efficacy. These variable-centered analyses were then complemented with a person-centered approach in order to capture distinct risk profiles. Cross-sectional data were collected from 1003 Turkish university students (71.5% women; M_age = 21.93 years) and analyzed with structural equation modeling, latent profile analysis (LPA), and random forest regression. The structural model accounted for 62% of variance in procrastination (CFI = 0.958, RMSEA = 0.074). Based on these results, general self-efficacy was identified as a common pathway through which distal non-cognitive influences converge on procrastination. The direct effect of automatic thoughts was non-significant, whereas the indirect effect through self-efficacy was strong (indirect effect = 0.51, 95% CI [0.44, 0.58]). LPA identified three profiles: adaptive, average, and vulnerable; the vulnerable profile showed markedly higher procrastination than the adaptive profile (d = 1.21). Random forest analysis indicated no meaningful nonlinearity, with self-efficacy as the dominant predictor. These findings suggest that interventions may benefit from prioritizing general self-efficacy beliefs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Intelligent Mind in Action: Perspectives on Self-Regulation, Metacognition, and Emotion in Cognitive Performance)

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21 pages, 2382 KB

Open AccessArticle

Virtual Reality-Based Orienteering Training Improves Spatial Memory in College Students with Operationally Defined DTD-like Navigational Difficulties: fNIRS Correlates of Training-Related Cortical Adaptation

by Yang Liu, Heying Liu and Pengyang Kang

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080187 - 16 Aug 2026

Abstract

Background: Developmental topographical disorientation (DTD)-like navigational difficulties can impair everyday orientation and spatial information processing. Objective: We examined whether 8-week virtual reality (VR) orienteering training improves performance on a laboratory spatial memory task in college students with operationally defined DTD-like navigational difficulties and [...] Read more.

Background: Developmental topographical disorientation (DTD)-like navigational difficulties can impair everyday orientation and spatial information processing. Objective: We examined whether 8-week virtual reality (VR) orienteering training improves performance on a laboratory spatial memory task in college students with operationally defined DTD-like navigational difficulties and examined task-related cortical changes. Methods: In a randomized controlled trial, 96 students were assigned to VR orienteering, VR exercise, or control groups (n = 32/group). The exercise groups trained twice weekly for 45 min for 8 weeks at moderate intensity (64–76% HRmax). Before and after the intervention, all participants completed a delayed visuospatial recognition task designed to assess spatial-memory-related processing, while functional near-infrared spectroscopy measured hemodynamic changes in prefrontal and sensorimotor cortices. The post-test session was conducted 48 h after the final scheduled session, with no immediate post-exercise assessment. Results: VR orienteering produced greater improvement in spatial-memory-task accuracy and reaction time than the other groups. After BH-FDR correction across eight ROIs, training-specific reductions in task-related activation were observed in the right primary motor cortex and left frontopolar area. Within the VR orienteering group, pre-to-post change in left orbitofrontal activation was negatively associated with change in spatial-memory-task accuracy, Pearson r(30) = −0.819, 95% CI [−0.908, −0.658], p < 0.001, R² = 0.670; the association remained significant after eight-ROI BH-FDR correction (adjusted p < 0.001). Conclusions: VR orienteering improved performance on the laboratory spatial memory task and was accompanied by reduced task-related cortical recruitment. Greater reductions in L-OFC activation were linked to greater improvements in accuracy, identifying L-OFC activation change as a neural correlate of training-related spatial-memory improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Intelligence: Cognitive, Emotional, and Neural Mechanisms)

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16 pages, 1440 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Human Cognitive Performance Through Physical Activity: Effect of Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity on Executive Function in Chinese Adolescents

by Yuan Liu, Chenyang Zhao, Zheping Gu, Hong Jun, Yanyan Hu, He Liu and Xiaojian Yin

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080186 - 12 Aug 2026

Abstract

Executive function (EF) is a core component of human cognitive performance. This study investigated whether increasing the duration of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) could enhance this critical cognitive ability in Chinese adolescents. Adolescents (13.4 ± 0.5 years) from two secondary schools in Jiangsu [...] Read more.

Executive function (EF) is a core component of human cognitive performance. This study investigated whether increasing the duration of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) could enhance this critical cognitive ability in Chinese adolescents. Adolescents (13.4 ± 0.5 years) from two secondary schools in Jiangsu Province were recruited, screened, and individually randomized into an intervention group (n = 101) and a control group (n = 105); after three withdrawals, the final analytical sample comprised 98 and 105 participants, respectively. EF was compared using independent and paired sample t-tests, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), and effect size tests. Post-intervention, adolescents in the intervention group showed a significantly longer daily MVPA duration than the control group (mean difference 25.16 min, p < 0.05). As an exploratory analysis, sex-stratified ANCOVAs were conducted. After adjusting for pre-intervention inhibition control reaction times (RTs), ANCOVA revealed that boys in the intervention group had a lower mean inhibition control RT (1.03 ms lower than controls, p < 0.05). With pre-intervention 2-back RTs as a covariate, ANCOVA indicated significant reductions in mean 2-back RTs for intervention group boys (191.09 ms lower, p < 0.05) and girls (175.62 ms lower, p < 0.05). After adjusting for pre-intervention cognitive flexibility RTs, boys in the intervention group also exhibited a significantly lower mean cognitive flexibility RT (102.7 ms lower, p < 0.05). In conclusion, a combined aerobic and resistance (HIIT) exercise intervention effectively increased adolescents’ physical activity time, and concurrent improvements were observed in key components of human cognitive performance—specifically inhibition control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility in boys and working memory in girls. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Intelligence: Cognitive, Emotional, and Neural Mechanisms)

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18 pages, 994 KB

Open AccessArticle

Generative AI as an External Cognitive Tool: Cognitive Dependence, AI Literacy, and Perceived Academic Creativity

by Wenzhang Li, Weida Zhang, Mengling Li and Yi Zhang

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080185 - 11 Aug 2026

Abstract

Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) provides a new context for examining how external intelligent systems are associated with human cognitive agency and perceived creative intellectual functioning. Drawing on cognitive offloading theory and AI literacy research, this cross-sectional study tested a moderated mediation model linking [...] Read more.

Generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) provides a new context for examining how external intelligent systems are associated with human cognitive agency and perceived creative intellectual functioning. Drawing on cognitive offloading theory and AI literacy research, this cross-sectional study tested a moderated mediation model linking GenAI use intensity, GenAI cognitive dependence, AI literacy, and perceived academic creativity. Survey data were collected from 936 undergraduates at six universities in China. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the empirical distinctiveness of the four focal constructs, and latent structural equation modeling was used to examine the hypothesized associations. GenAI use intensity showed a positive direct association with perceived academic creativity and a positive association with GenAI cognitive dependence; cognitive dependence was negatively associated with perceived academic creativity. The standardized direct and indirect associations operated in opposite directions, leaving a small model-implied net association (β ≈ 0.040). AI literacy was negatively associated with cognitive dependence and positively associated with perceived academic creativity. The use-dependence association was weaker at higher levels of AI literacy, and the negative indirect association through dependence was correspondingly smaller. These cross-sectional results are interpreted as associations and do not establish temporal or causal ordering. Full article

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27 pages, 1694 KB

Open AccessArticle

Emotional–Social Intelligence Profiles and Adaptive Professional Functioning Among Teachers: A Person-Centered Analysis of School Climate Perception and Conflict Handling

by László Balázs

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080184 - 10 Aug 2026

Abstract

Research exploring the relationship between emotional intelligence and workplace outcomes is predominantly variable-centered and treats the dimensions of emotional–social competencies as separate from one another, thereby losing sight of the intra-individual interplay of these competencies and the potential heterogeneity of their effects. This [...] Read more.

Research exploring the relationship between emotional intelligence and workplace outcomes is predominantly variable-centered and treats the dimensions of emotional–social competencies as separate from one another, thereby losing sight of the intra-individual interplay of these competencies and the potential heterogeneity of their effects. This study examines teachers’ emotional–social intelligence using a person-centered approach. Using a sample of 587 Hungarian teachers from 26 public education institutions, we conducted latent profile analysis based on Bar-On’s five composites and then used unbiased three-step procedures (BCH; categorical BCH) to examine the antecedents of profile membership, as well as perceptions of school organizational climate and dominant conflict management style. Four distinct profiles emerged, primarily differing at the global level—a uniformly low profile (12%), a medium-low profile (25%), a dominant, balanced medium-high profile (53%), and a uniformly high profile (9%). Participants with higher profiles perceived the school’s organizational climate as more supportive (η² = 0.07) and exhibited more adaptive conflict management patterns (less avoidance, more problem-solving; χ²(12) = 37.24, p < .001). A compositional (log-ratio) reanalysis of the complete conflict-mode profiles, reported as the primary conflict analysis, showed that the relative weight of problem-solving rises across profiles and plateaus between the modal and the highest profile, that avoidance declines with profile elevation, and that an apparent surplus of accommodating in the highest profile was an artifact of dominant-style coding rather than an indication of a broader repertoire. At the same time, profile membership was essentially independent of job position, career stage, and gender, and the relationships with outcomes were of modest to moderate strength. The results extend person-centered, profile-based intelligence research to the emotional–social domain and identify promising directions for research on teacher professional development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Influence of Emotional Intelligence on Individual Development)

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17 pages, 924 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Quadratic Bifactor Hierarchical Model for Jointly Modelling the Nonlinear Relationship Between Response Accuracy and Response Time in Cognitive Testing

by Xiaojun Guo, Xiaohua He, Xiaoyun Bai and Juan Yan

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080183 - 8 Aug 2026

Abstract

In computerized assessments, response accuracy and response time together reflect how examinees engage with test items. Existing joint models typically assume a linear relationship between these two outcomes, yet empirical observations often reveal more complex patterns. This study proposes a Quadratic Bifactor Hierarchical [...] Read more.

In computerized assessments, response accuracy and response time together reflect how examinees engage with test items. Existing joint models typically assume a linear relationship between these two outcomes, yet empirical observations often reveal more complex patterns. This study proposes a Quadratic Bifactor Hierarchical Model (QBi-HM) that captures nonlinear speed–accuracy dependencies through a shared general factor with quadratic terms, while preserving separate ability and speed components. Simulation results across sample sizes (N = 1000, 1500, 3000) and test lengths (m = 30, 60) demonstrated that QBi-HM recovered parameters accurately under both linear and nonlinear conditions, whereas the conventional linear bifactor model produced biased estimates when nonlinearity was present. An empirical application to PISA 2012 computer-based mathematics data (N = 1527 examinees from four economies, m = 10 items) showed that QBi-HM achieved superior model fit (AIC = 41,825.190, BIC = 42,251.675, SABIC = 41,997.535) compared with Bi-HM (AIC = 41,969.750, BIC = 42,289.613, SABIC = 42,099.099) and revealed an inverted U-shaped speed-accuracy pattern. These findings may suggest that modeling nonlinear dependencies can improve the precision of ability estimation in large-scale assessments and inform item design by identifying task features that elicit distinct response processes. The QBi-HM framework offers a flexible tool for researchers and practitioners seeking to leverage response time data to better understand test-taking behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Contributions to the Measurement of Intelligence)

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17 pages, 915 KB

Open AccessArticle

Is It Mine or Not Mine? Cognitive Offloading to Generative AI and Concern over the Erosion of Cognitive Ownership

by Jing Su, Zhuo Wang, Zhen Qiang and Zhonghou Wang

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080182 - 7 Aug 2026

Abstract

Cognitive offloading—delegating cognitive work to external tools—is basic to human cognition, but generative AI (GenAI) amplifies it radically: entire cognitive products can now be produced on request. This sharpens a question about agency over one’s own thinking: when cognition is habitually offloaded, does [...] Read more.

Cognitive offloading—delegating cognitive work to external tools—is basic to human cognition, but generative AI (GenAI) amplifies it radically: entire cognitive products can now be produced on request. This sharpens a question about agency over one’s own thinking: when cognition is habitually offloaded, does its product still feel like one’s own? We surveyed 239 pre-service teachers, operationalizing the felt loss of cognitive ownership as concern over the erosion of teaching-design subjectivity (TSC)—the metacognitive appraisal that AI-assisted work is not genuinely one’s own and that independent capacity is declining. Guided by the Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model, we tested whether AI anxiety/fear of missing out (affective) and impulsivity (self-regulatory) relate to this concern through behavioral GenAI dependency—habitual offloading. In a structural equation model with bias-corrected bootstrapping, dependency strongly predicted TSC and partially mediated the effect of AI anxiety; impulsivity raised dependency but showed a suppression pattern (a positive indirect effect offset by a null total effect), and the model explained 35% of the variance in the concern. Habitual offloading—that is, GenAI dependency—rather than generic AI use, accompanies the metacognitive loss of cognitive ownership. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Digital Technology and Human Development: Risks, Resilience, and Inequalities)

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31 pages, 1732 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Teacher-Mediated Digital Game-Based Learning and Children’s Emotional Intelligence in Inclusive Classrooms: A Systematic Review and Critical Narrative Synthesis

by Funda Uğurlu and Filiz Evran Acar

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080181 - 7 Aug 2026

Abstract

Digital game-based learning is increasingly used to support children’s engagement, interaction, and social–emotional development. However, its contribution to emotional intelligence, particularly in inclusive classroom contexts, remains theoretically underdeveloped and methodologically fragmented. This systematic review and critical narrative synthesis examines how teacher- or facilitator-mediated [...] Read more.

Digital game-based learning is increasingly used to support children’s engagement, interaction, and social–emotional development. However, its contribution to emotional intelligence, particularly in inclusive classroom contexts, remains theoretically underdeveloped and methodologically fragmented. This systematic review and critical narrative synthesis examines how teacher- or facilitator-mediated digital games address children’s emotional intelligence and related social–emotional outcomes in inclusive educational contexts. Following PRISMA 2020 reporting guidance, the review examined peer-reviewed articles indexed in Web of Science and Scopus between 2015 and 2026. After screening 347 unique records and assessing 31 full-text reports, 14 studies were included in the final synthesis. The review focused on four interrelated areas: the emotional and social–emotional outcomes addressed in digital game-based studies; the roles of teachers or facilitators in structuring, mediating, and debriefing game-based activities; the inclusive classroom conditions that support equitable participation and emotional safety; and the risks, limitations, or implementation challenges associated with classroom use. The findings suggest that digital games may become educationally meaningful when they are linked to explicit emotional learning goals, embedded in structured classroom or school-based activities, supported by teacher or facilitator mediation, and followed by reflection or debriefing. Based on the synthesis, the review proposes a teacher-mediated inclusive digital game-based emotional learning framework consisting of seven dimensions: emotional learning target, game selection and pedagogical fit, teacher mediation, inclusive participation, classroom interaction, reflective debriefing, and risk monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Children’s Emotional Intelligence: Digital Games, Technologies and Practical Applications)

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16 pages, 2357 KB

Open AccessArticle

Learning Potential as a Dynamic Component of Academic Intelligence: An fNIRS-Based Dynamic Assessment Study of English Reading Comprehension

by Jingying Chen, Yijia Zheng, Yuetong Li, Xiaodi Liu and Rui Li

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080180 - 6 Aug 2026

Abstract

Foreign language reading comprehension is a critical indicator of university students’ academic cognitive ability and global competence, yet effectively assessing their latent learning potential remains a major challenge. Therefore, from a neurocognitive perspective, this study combined functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) with dynamic assessment [...] Read more.

Foreign language reading comprehension is a critical indicator of university students’ academic cognitive ability and global competence, yet effectively assessing their latent learning potential remains a major challenge. Therefore, from a neurocognitive perspective, this study combined functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) with dynamic assessment (DA) to investigate the activation characteristics of the left frontal and temporal regions in non-English majors during reading tasks across two difficulty levels (CET-4/CET-6) and two assessment conditions (static/dynamic testing). The results showed that reading tasks activated the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and middle temporal gyrus. Compared with CET-4, the more difficult CET-6 task showed a broader descriptive cortical activation pattern. Notably, mediated prompts were associated with different behavioral and activation-frequency patterns across task difficulty levels: in the CET-4 task, dynamic assessment showed higher normalized activation-frequency values than static assessment in areas corresponding to the middle and inferior frontal gyrus, accompanied by rising prompt scores; however, the CET-6 task exhibited the opposite pattern. These findings suggest that mediated prompts may be more effective in stimulating learning potential when task difficulty aligns with the learner’s zone of proximal development. Overall, by considering behavioral dynamic-assessment indicators in foreign-language reading together with fNIRS-based cortical activation patterns, this exploratory study offers preliminary insights into learning potential, personalized instructional interventions, and academic cognitive assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive Foundations of Language Comprehension and Production)

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30 pages, 3301 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bridging Cognitive Architecture and Developmental Measurement for Artificial General Intelligence

by Yuqiu Fu, Yuxi Wang, Hongzhao Xie, Shiyun Zhao, Mingyuan Liu, Yujie Lu, Xinyi He, Zhenku Cheng, Yujia Peng and Zhenliang Zhang

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080179 - 5 Aug 2026

Abstract

Current artificial intelligence evaluation often relies on static benchmarks and task-specific performance metrics, which are useful for system comparison but limited in assessing developmental progression, cognitive architecture, adaptive transfer, and real-world applicability. Building on developmental approaches to AGI testing, including our earlier conceptual [...] Read more.

Current artificial intelligence evaluation often relies on static benchmarks and task-specific performance metrics, which are useful for system comparison but limited in assessing developmental progression, cognitive architecture, adaptive transfer, and real-world applicability. Building on developmental approaches to AGI testing, including our earlier conceptual proposal, this article develops an operational formulation of the General–Specialized–Applicable (GSA) framework for artificial general intelligence (AGI) evaluation. The framework organizes evidence into three non-interchangeable stages: the General stage, which assesses foundational capacities for open-ended generalization, value-oriented regulation, and autonomy; the Specialized stage, which evaluates stable domain-specific competence; and the Applicable stage, which examines whether such competence can be deployed safely and robustly in realistic environments. The article further introduces a dynamic task-generation pipeline and a provisional operational rubric for interpreting stage-specific evidence. An illustrative case study using household tasks in a simulated embodied environment illustrates how GSA can provide diagnostic information beyond aggregate benchmark scores by identifying capability gaps in current multimodal large language model (MLLM) agents. Rather than offering a final universal standard, the GSA framework provides an evaluation-oriented structure for connecting benchmark performance with architectural readiness, specialization, and deployment-level applicability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances of Intelligence Measurement in the AI Era: Theory, Methods and Applications)

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23 pages, 1229 KB

Open AccessArticle

Explaining Individual Differences in Metacognitive Monitoring: A Multilevel Analysis of Person-Level Predictors Across Academic Assessments

by Jinjushang Chen, Qian Zhang, Yue Yin, Jeannine E. Turner, Liang Luo and Chunliang Yang

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080178 - 3 Aug 2026

Abstract

Metacognitive monitoring, students’ evaluations of their own performance, is central to self-regulated learning but often misaligns with actual performance. While situational factors have been studied extensively, less is known about how learning-related beliefs and motivational dispositions—hereafter termed learning-related attributes—relate to individual differences in [...] Read more.

Metacognitive monitoring, students’ evaluations of their own performance, is central to self-regulated learning but often misaligns with actual performance. While situational factors have been studied extensively, less is known about how learning-related beliefs and motivational dispositions—hereafter termed learning-related attributes—relate to individual differences in metacognitive monitoring. This study examined how these learning attributes, alongside cognitive and demographic variables, were associated with students’ general confidence and resolution. Data were drawn from 3946 Chinese sixth-grade students who completed academic assessments in the verbal and mathematical domains, provided post-test performance estimates, and completed questionnaires measuring their learning attributes and demographic characteristics. We conducted multilevel analyses with a random-intercept–random-slope specification and identified several learning attributes as significant predictors of metacognitive monitoring, primarily in terms of general confidence. Adding learning-related attributes after the cognitive and demographic blocks increased marginal R², primarily for general confidence; this order-dependent increment was not interpreted as evidence that the block is inherently more important. The findings extend existing accounts of metacognitive monitoring by suggesting that students’ general confidence is associated with non-cognitive learning attributes—and may thus be partly separable from cognitive ability—whereas their resolution is comparatively less strongly associated with these attributes. Theoretical as well as practical implications are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Theoretical Contributions to Intelligence)

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19 pages, 8158 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Effects of Traditional and Technology-Based Exercise Interventions on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Jingzhan Ren, Xiaotong Du, Wei Wang, Sijing Fan, Han Wang, Gongxing Fang, Yuan Li, Ruilong Wang, Hegui Bao, Chenyu Zhang, Ruohan Zhu, Xinming Ye and Wen Fang

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080177 - 1 Aug 2026

Abstract

Background: As population aging accelerates, pharmacological treatments provide limited benefits for cognitive decline. Exercise and technology-assisted exercise have thus emerged as important non-pharmacological approaches for supporting cognitive health in older adults. However, comparative evidence on the relative effectiveness of different intervention modalities across [...] Read more.

Background: As population aging accelerates, pharmacological treatments provide limited benefits for cognitive decline. Exercise and technology-assisted exercise have thus emerged as important non-pharmacological approaches for supporting cognitive health in older adults. However, comparative evidence on the relative effectiveness of different intervention modalities across cognitive outcomes remains limited. Objective: This study used a network meta-analysis to systematically compare and rank the effects of traditional and non-traditional exercise interventions on cognitive function in older adults. Methods: This systematic review and network meta-analysis was registered on PROSPERO (CRD420261278685). PubMed, Embase, the Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched from inception to May 2026. Randomized controlled trials enrolling participants aged 60 years or older were included. Interventions comprised aerobic, resistance, mind–body, finger, and multicomponent exercise, as well as virtual reality-based interventions, artificial intelligence-assisted exercise, and wearable exoskeleton training. Primary outcomes included global cognition, executive function, memory, attention, and activities of daily living. A random effects network meta-analysis was applied to estimate standardized mean differences with 95 percent confidence intervals, and intervention rankings were derived using SUCRA values. Results: A total of 70 randomized controlled trials involving 5573 older adults were included. All active interventions demonstrated overall cognitive benefits compared with usual care or non-active control conditions. Mind–body exercise showed the highest probability of improving global cognitive performance. Virtual reality-based interventions were particularly effective for executive function, memory, and activities of daily living, while artificial intelligence-assisted exercise showed favorable rankings for attention outcomes. Mind–body exercise showed favorable effects on global cognition, whereas several technology-assisted interventions ranked highly for selected cognitive and functional outcomes. Conclusions: Both traditional and non non-traditional exercise interventions improve cognitive function in older adults, although their effects differ across cognitive domains. Technology-assisted approaches appear more effective for enhancing specific cognitive functions, while traditional interventions such as mind–body exercise are more advantageous for preserving overall cognitive performance. These findings highlight the potential value of stage specific and combined intervention strategies for promoting cognitive health in aging populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise and Intelligence: Cognitive, Emotional, and Neural Mechanisms)

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31 pages, 985 KB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Reports of Past Malevolent Behavior and Narcissism as Predictors of Malevolent Creativity on a Real-World Ideation Task

by Natalie A. Ceballos, Ruby N. Sweet and Carmen E. Westerberg

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080176 - 1 Aug 2026

Abstract

Creativity has a dark side—malevolent creativity (MC), which is the application of original ideas to purposely harm others; i.e., creative problem-solving with malicious intent. Here, the influence of past MC behavior on MC ideation was examined while controlling for other individual-level factors relevant [...] Read more.

Creativity has a dark side—malevolent creativity (MC), which is the application of original ideas to purposely harm others; i.e., creative problem-solving with malicious intent. Here, the influence of past MC behavior on MC ideation was examined while controlling for other individual-level factors relevant to the AMORAL model of MC. College undergraduates (N = 276 initially recruited; N = 248 final sample analyzed; 82% female) were surveyed on demographics, self-perception of problem-solving potential (SP-PSP), dark triad traits, and past MC behavior, and completed an adapted Malevolent Creativity Task (MCT), generating revenge ideas to an unfair scenario. Sequential regression models were used to predict MCT outcomes (fluency index, malevolence index, and composite score), incrementally controlling for age, sex, SP-PSP, dark triad traits, past MC behavior, and provocation level. In the final model, SP-PSP significantly predicted the MCT fluency index (R² = 0.065). Past MC behavior significantly increased the R² of the MCT malevolence index; the final model was significant (R² = 0.084). Past MC behavior and narcissism significantly predicted the MCT composite score (R² = 0.091). These findings align with and extend previous research linking past MC behavior to MC ideation by highlighting unique and incremental impacts of SP-PSP, narcissism, past MC behavior, and provocation on MC ideation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metacognition of Insight and Creative Cognition)

15 pages, 793 KB

Open AccessArticle

Media Multitasking and Cognitive Abilities: A Multi-Domain Assessment of Attention, Working Memory, Convergent Associative Thinking, and Fluid Reasoning

by Tindara Caprì

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080175 - 1 Aug 2026

Abstract

The present study addressed a timely and important issue in cognitive and media psychology about the relationship between media multitasking and cognition. This study examined attention control, working memory, convergent associative thinking, and fluid reasoning, examining multiple functions within the same analytical framework [...] Read more.

The present study addressed a timely and important issue in cognitive and media psychology about the relationship between media multitasking and cognition. This study examined attention control, working memory, convergent associative thinking, and fluid reasoning, examining multiple functions within the same analytical framework and moving beyond the narrow focus on single cognitive domains that characterizes much prior research. The main aim was to deepen the understanding of the associations of media multitasking with these core domains of human cognition. A total of 214 healthy young adults (18–30 years) completed the Short Media Multitasking Questionnaire, Raven’s Progressive Matrices, the Digit Span Test, the Trail-Making Test, and the Remote Associates Task. Multivariate general linear models and subsequent regression analyses were performed while controlling for age and gender. The results did not reveal a significant overall association between media multitasking and the combined cognitive outcomes. At the univariate level, higher media multitasking scores were associated with lower performance on the Remote Associates Task, although the observed effect size was small. Given the cross-sectional design and reliance on self-reported media multitasking, longitudinal studies employing objective measures of media multitasking use are needed to clarify the robustness and directionality of these associations. Full article

19 pages, 827 KB

Open AccessArticle

Students’ Inhibition, Cognitive Flexibility, and Performance Calibration Across Command, Practice, and Self-Check Teaching Styles in Physical Education: An Exploratory Field Study

by Athanasios Kolovelonis and Ioannis Syrmpas

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080174 - 1 Aug 2026

Abstract

This exploratory study examined students’ acute responses in soccer performance, executive functions, and calibration accuracy to a single soccer session delivered using three different teaching styles (i.e., command, practice, and self-check) in physical education. One hundred and forty-seven students of four elementary schools [...] Read more.

This exploratory study examined students’ acute responses in soccer performance, executive functions, and calibration accuracy to a single soccer session delivered using three different teaching styles (i.e., command, practice, and self-check) in physical education. One hundred and forty-seven students of four elementary schools attending four fifth-grade (80 students) and four sixth-grade (67 students) classes participated in the study. Two classes (one fifth- and one sixth-grade) from each elementary school were randomly assigned to one of the four groups of the study (i.e., self-check style, command style, practice style, and control group). Students in all experimental groups were taught the soccer-passing skill in a single 45 min session using identical activities and drills but different teaching styles. Control-group students attended a classroom-based session on the ancient Olympic Games. Students were pre- and post-tested in soccer-pass performance, estimation of soccer-pass performance, and design fluency test. Students in the self-check group demonstrated more favorable changes in inhibition and cognitive flexibility than students in the command- and practice-style groups, whereas students in the practice group also showed improvements in cognitive flexibility over time. No differences between groups were found in calibration accuracy. For soccer performance, although students in the self-check group improved from pre- to post-test, nonsignificant differences between groups were observed. The findings reflected students’ immediate responses under different instructional conditions during a single soccer session, rather than outcomes of the longitudinal learning process. These results are discussed in relation to the cognitive and metacognitive aspects of learning and performing sports skills in physical education, with particular emphasis on how students responded to different teaching styles. Full article

18 pages, 1073 KB

Open AccessArticle

Screening for High Intellectual Ability: Validation of the SACI Protocol and Implications for Inclusive Education in Primary Settings

by Ioseba Iraurgi, Miryam Martínez-Izaguirre and Alexander Álvarez-González

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080173 - 1 Aug 2026

Abstract

Guaranteeing high-quality, equitable, and inclusive basic education requires upholding the right of all students to reach their full potential and ensuring their well-being. Students with High Intellectual Ability (HIA) represent a vulnerable group that is often under-identified in schools, a fact that hinders [...] Read more.

Guaranteeing high-quality, equitable, and inclusive basic education requires upholding the right of all students to reach their full potential and ensuring their well-being. Students with High Intellectual Ability (HIA) represent a vulnerable group that is often under-identified in schools, a fact that hinders the personalization of their education and the ability to meet their specific needs. In 2019, as part of its plan to address the educational needs of this group, the Department of Education of the Basque Government prioritized the design and validation of a screening protocol to support the identification of students with HIA. This article presents a study on the validity and reliability of the High Intellectual Ability Screening Protocol (SACI, by its Spanish acronym), applicable in Primary Education. A two-phase controlled screening design was employed, involving the random assignment of participants and the use of specific statistical techniques to evaluate the psychometric soundness of the measure. The results provide highly promising evidence, supporting the conclusion that the SACI protocol is a valid and reliable screening instrument for use with Primary Education students in the Basque Autonomous Community. Full article

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16 pages, 883 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Unique Contribution of Digital Maturity in the AI Era: Psychometric Validation, Predictive Ability and Latent Profile Analysis Among Chinese Primary Students

by Meng Sun and Jiutong Luo

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080172 - 1 Aug 2026

Abstract

With the widespread use of digital technologies, it has become increasingly important to understand how children adapt to digital environments. However, limited research has examined digital maturity among children beyond digital access and familiarity with technologies, particularly in non-Western contexts. Building on recent [...] Read more.

With the widespread use of digital technologies, it has become increasingly important to understand how children adapt to digital environments. However, limited research has examined digital maturity among children beyond digital access and familiarity with technologies, particularly in non-Western contexts. Building on recent work on digital maturity, the present study aimed to validate the Digital Maturity Inventory (DIMI) among Chinese primary school students and to identify their latent profiles. A sample of 434 students (221 girls; Mean_age = 10.68, SD = 0.86) completed the DIMI for validation analyses, and an additional sample was simultaneously recruited, resulting in a total sample of 1026 students (500 girls; Mean_age = 10.38, SD = 1.09), for latent profile analysis. The findings demonstrated that the DIMI exhibited satisfactory psychometric properties in the Chinese context. Moreover, digital maturity, in addition to digital native, emerged as a unique and significant predictor of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy. Three distinct subgroups of students with heterogeneous patterns of digital maturity were also revealed: an unbalanced low group, an inconsistent medium group, and a relatively high group. These findings not only support the cross-cultural applicability of DIMI, but also demonstrate its relevance to children’s AI-related competencies. The implications of this study were also discussed. Full article

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30 pages, 7802 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cognitive Processes of Probabilistic Prediction in Reading: Language Model Surprisal Across Model Sizes, Token Granularity, and Reading Paradigms

by Shuting Liu and Yong Mei

J. Intell. 2026, 14(8), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14080171 - 1 Aug 2026

Abstract

Surprisal, the negative log probability of a word given its context, is the dominant computational metric for quantifying reading difficulty and a common item difficulty estimator in reading research. Yet how the language model family, surprisal granularity, and corpus type jointly shape the [...] Read more.

Surprisal, the negative log probability of a word given its context, is the dominant computational metric for quantifying reading difficulty and a common item difficulty estimator in reading research. Yet how the language model family, surprisal granularity, and corpus type jointly shape the surprisal–reading time link remains unclear. We conducted a secondary analysis of two public English reading corpora: the Natural Stories Corpus (self-paced reading, 181 readers) and the Provo Corpus (eye tracking with cloze norms). Surprisal was computed from GPT 2 (Small, XL), Llama 2 (7B, 13B), and Llama 3 (8B), together with a 5-gram baseline and human cloze norms. Linear mixed-effects models tested the baseline contribution of neural surprisal, inverse scaling within model families, word-level versus sub-word aggregation, and the linking function shape. Neural surprisal contributed reliable variance above a strong baseline in both corpora. A clear inverse scaling pattern emerged: GPT 2 Small produced the largest fit improvements, exceeding GPT 2 XL, Llama 2 13B, and Llama 3 8B. Word-level aggregation outperformed sub-word aggregation, especially for measures of early lexical access. Non-parametric analyses supported an approximately linear linking function, and cloze norms carried information not fully captured by neural surprisal. These findings show that larger models are not automatically better cognitive models of reading and that surprisal granularity is not a neutral analytic choice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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