Foods

34 pages, 5217 KB

Open AccessArticle

Walnut Protein Peptide Nanoparticles with Protective Mineralization: Resveratrol Encapsulation, Intestinal-Targeted Delivery and Synergistic Antioxidant Activity

by Jingwen Hou, Chao Liu, Chaoting Wen, Min Liu, Chunyan Xiang, Mengxue Fang, Liangxiao Zhang and Peiwu Li

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4310; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244310 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

Resveratrol (RES) suffers from low bioavailability and poor gastrointestinal stability, limiting its health benefits. To overcome these challenges, we developed biomimetic mineralized nanoparticles based on walnut protein peptides (WPP-RES@CaP) for intestinal-targeted RES delivery. WPP with a 31.83% degree of hydrolysis was optimal for [...] Read more.

Resveratrol (RES) suffers from low bioavailability and poor gastrointestinal stability, limiting its health benefits. To overcome these challenges, we developed biomimetic mineralized nanoparticles based on walnut protein peptides (WPP-RES@CaP) for intestinal-targeted RES delivery. WPP with a 31.83% degree of hydrolysis was optimal for RES encapsulation. Subsequent mineralization with 5 mM Ca²⁺ significantly enhanced the encapsulation efficiency (EE) to 95.86%, compared to 73.69% for non-mineralized WPP-RES nanoparticles. The particle size and zeta potential of WPP-RES@CaP were 795 ± 16 nm and −27 ± 1 mV, respectively. Beyond the initial hydrophobic and π-π interactions, mineralization introduced additional stabilizing forces, including metal–ligand coordination, salt bridges, and electrostatic interactions, which collectively enhanced the structural integrity and RES retention of WPP-RES@CaP. During in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, the formation of a CaP shell protected RES and WPP from excessive degradation in the gastric phase. The 77.57% RES in WPP-RES@CaP was continuously released in the intestinal phase, which was higher than that of WPP-RES (49.73%). Meanwhile, the introduction of Ca²⁺ promoted the antioxidant activity of WPP-RES@CaP, which demonstrated higher DPPH and ABTS radical-scavenging activity assays than WPP-RES both before and after digestion. It was probably due to the synergistic effect of more released RES, antioxidant-free amino acids, and peptides. This mineralized peptide-based system provided a strategy for improving the delivery of hydrophobic bioactive compounds in functional foods. Full article

28 pages, 1874 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Conventional and Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction Conditions on the Physicochemical Properties, Phytochemical Content, Antioxidant Activity and Functional Properties of Alfalfa Protein Concentrates

by Angela Gurev, Viorica Bulgaru, Iana Ciugureanu, Natalia Netreba, Veronica Dragancea, Irina Dianu, Iuliana Sandu, Mihail Mazur, Tatiana Mitina, Nadejda Bandarenco and Aliona Ghendov-Mosanu

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4309; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244309 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is an underutilized source of phytonutrients and easily digestible protein, containing all essential amino acids, highlighting its potential for food applications. This study aimed to produce alfalfa protein concentrates (APC) from frozen aerial parts and evaluate how conventional [...] Read more.

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is an underutilized source of phytonutrients and easily digestible protein, containing all essential amino acids, highlighting its potential for food applications. This study aimed to produce alfalfa protein concentrates (APC) from frozen aerial parts and evaluate how conventional extraction and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) affect the extraction yield, physicochemical properties, functional attributes, color parameters, phytochemical composition and antioxidant activity. The influence of extraction pH and the type of acid used for isoelectric precipitation was also evaluated. Paired t-tests (p ≤ 0.05) showed that UAE (37 kHz, 25 °C, 15 min) increased the extraction yield by 20.5–39.7%, the protein content in APC by 2.5–12.1% and the in vitro protein digestibility by 5.6–11.03%, depending on the extraction conditions. Ultrasound treatment decreased the levels of chlorophyll and carotenoids, modified the color parameters and increased the total polyphenols and flavonoids content. Improvements in the textural, foaming and emulsifying properties of APC were also observed. UAE also reduced the scavenging capacity of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals. However, the 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS•⁺) scavenging activity significantly increased in aqueous APC extracts, reaching 3118.8 mg TE/100 g DW. Overall, UAE proved effective in improving the yield and functionality of APC, supporting its application in the development of alfalfa-based protein ingredients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plant-Based Foods: From Sustainable Production to Functional Applications)

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24 pages, 1531 KB

Open AccessArticle

Protein Fortification of Millet-Based Gluten-Free Snacks Designed for 3D Printing

by Jovana Simeunović, Jelena Miljanić, Bojana Kokić, Lidija Perović, Jelena Jovančević, Jovana Glušac and Jovana Kojić

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4308; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244308 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

The global trend in gluten-free snack innovation involves using naturally gluten-free grains as a nutrient-rich foundation, enriching formulations with multifunctional plant and microbial proteins, and optimizing ingredient interactions to balance nutritional demands with structural integrity. The study demonstrates that blending proso millet flour [...] Read more.

The global trend in gluten-free snack innovation involves using naturally gluten-free grains as a nutrient-rich foundation, enriching formulations with multifunctional plant and microbial proteins, and optimizing ingredient interactions to balance nutritional demands with structural integrity. The study demonstrates that blending proso millet flour with yeast-derived and almond (50:50 ratio) proteins effectively produces a protein- and fiber-rich gluten-free dough suitable for 3D printing, without the need for synthetic additives. This approach aligns with the growing demand for clean-label, sustainable protein sources that enable the creation of healthy, stable, and appealing ready-to-eat snacks. The enriched dough demonstrated superior rheological behavior, characterized by a dominant elastic modulus (G′ > G″), enabling smooth extrusion and stable shape retention. Nutritional analysis revealed an increase in protein (28.16 vs. 13.26 g/100 g DB) and dietary fiber (12.17 vs. 6.22 g/100 g DB) compared to the control. The amino acid profile improved significantly, with 48% more essential amino acids and a 63% increase in non-essential amino acids. Dimensional accuracy improved, and post-processing deformation was reduced, confirming enhanced structural integrity. Texture analysis showed no significant increase in hardness, maintaining a desirable texture profile despite higher protein content. Sensory evaluation confirmed greater acceptance of the enriched snack, especially in terms of flavor, aroma, and smell, while preliminary cost assessment indicated that, despite higher ingredient costs, the enriched formulation remains economically feasible. Additional optimization of protein concentration and processing conditions could enhance the overall functionality even further. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Processing Characteristics, Bioactive Substances and Product Development of Cereals)

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18 pages, 308 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quality Characteristics of Poultry Products Containing Plant Components with Enhanced Health Benefits

by Anna Augustyńska-Prejsnar, Małgorzata Ormian, Jadwiga Topczewska, Zofia Sokołowicz and Renata Tobiasz-Salach

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4307; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244307 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

An innovative approach to improving the quality of meat products is to change their recipe composition. The aim of the study was to improve the quality of poultry products with different proportions of plant components. The test groups consisted of paste products: P [...] Read more.

An innovative approach to improving the quality of meat products is to change their recipe composition. The aim of the study was to improve the quality of poultry products with different proportions of plant components. The test groups consisted of paste products: P₁—with 50% slaughter turkey meat and 40% plant additives; P₂—with 30%, respectively. The control group consisted of classic poultry pâté in paste form. The assessment of paste quality considered the physical characteristics (pH, color), nutritional value (basic chemical composition, fatty acid profile, fiber content, vitamin E, cholesterol, minerals), microbiological quality (total number of aerobic bacteria, Pseudomonas) and sensory quality of the samples. It was found that poultry products containing plant components had increased nutritional value, including reduced fat and cholesterol content, while maintaining a favorable fatty acid profile, increased fiber, vitamin E and mineral content (Mg, Mn, K, Na, Ca, Fe) as well as microbiological safety and acceptable sensory characteristics compared to the control group. Within the research groups, the product from group P2, with a 60% share of plant components, received a higher recommendation with regard to health-promoting properties (higher fiber, Mn, Mg, Na, Ca, Zn content, optimal ratio of omega 6 to omega 3 fatty acids) and sensory characteristics (tastiness, spreadability). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Aspects of Shaping Quality in Meat Production, Processing and Consumption)

34 pages, 465 KB

Open AccessArticle

Adoption of 3D-Printed Food in Romania: Price Perception as a Key Determinant of Consumer Acceptance

by Iuliana Petronela Gârdan, Mihai Ioan Roșca, Daniel Adrian Gârdan, Mihai Andronie, Laura Daniela Roșca and Carmen Adina Paștiu

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4306; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244306 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

Three-dimensional printed food has rapidly positioned itself at the intersection of food technology and personalized nutrition, opening up new perspectives for sustainable production, creative customization, and more efficient resource use. Although global interest in this innovation continues to grow, consumer acceptance remains largely [...] Read more.

Three-dimensional printed food has rapidly positioned itself at the intersection of food technology and personalized nutrition, opening up new perspectives for sustainable production, creative customization, and more efficient resource use. Although global interest in this innovation continues to grow, consumer acceptance remains largely underexplored in Central and Eastern Europe. This study analyzes how Romanian consumers approach the adoption of 3D-printed food by applying an extended UTAUT2 framework to a sample of 608 urban respondents. Using structural equation modeling, it examines the influence of expected effort, performance expectancy, social influence, and perceived compatibility on adoption intention, while price perception is introduced as a key mediating variable—a novel and meaningful contribution to the literature on food technology acceptance. Given the non-probabilistic sampling design, the difficulties encountered in measuring Hedonic Motivation and Facilitating Conditions, and the early diffusion stage of 3D food printing in Romania, the present work should be viewed as a robust exploratory investigation based on Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) among urban Romanian consumers, providing first empirical evidence on 3D-printed food acceptance in Eastern Europe rather than definitive conclusions for the entire population. The results highlight that utilitarian and social factors are decisive: expected effort enhances perceived performance, while performance, social influence, and compatibility significantly strengthen perceptions of price fairness. In turn, price perception strongly predicts consumers’ behavioral intention to adopt 3D-printed food. Hedonic motivation and facilitating conditions were not statistically significant and were therefore removed from the final model. These findings show that, in emerging food markets, consumers tend to make adoption decisions based more on rational value assessments than on novelty or convenience. The study contributes to theory by embedding price perception into the UTAUT2 framework and to practice by identifying the key elements that can boost market readiness—transparent pricing and closer alignment with consumer values. By filling an important gap in the empirical literature from Eastern Europe and focusing on price as a cognitive bridge between technological and psychological drivers, this paper offers a timely and relevant contribution to ongoing research on consumer perception and acceptance of food innovations. For Eastern European food innovation research, this study provides one of the first quantitative analyses of 3D-printed food acceptance that explicitly links technology-related beliefs to price perception in a regional, price-sensitive context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Sensory and Consumer Sciences)

15 pages, 8303 KB

Open AccessArticle

Screening of Characteristic Metabolites in Bee Pollen from Different Floral Sources Based on High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry

by Lanhua Liu, Zhiwei Sun, Aiyuan Liang, Run Zhang, Siqi He, Yaling He, Min Zhang, Xingjiang Li and Xuefeng Wu

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4305; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244305 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

Bee pollen is a natural nutrient substance collected by bees from plants. Its metabolites have been extensively studied, yet the characteristic metabolites of bee pollen from different floral sources have not been clearly identified. In this study, we collected four types of bee [...] Read more.

Bee pollen is a natural nutrient substance collected by bees from plants. Its metabolites have been extensively studied, yet the characteristic metabolites of bee pollen from different floral sources have not been clearly identified. In this study, we collected four types of bee pollen (tea, rose, rapeseed, and corn pollen) from across China and analyzed their volatile and non-volatile metabolites using liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). At the same time, the nutritional substances (Including polyphenols, organic acids, and sugars) were precisely quantified. The results showed that the total phenols (5 mg GAE/g) and total flavonoids (0.27 mg RE/g) content of corn pollen were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those of other pollens, and the contents of polyphenols such as naringenin were relatively high, indicating strong antioxidant potential. Rose pollen was rich in protein (0.04 g/g) and flavonoid glycosides. Tea pollen was prominent in the content of polyphenol glycosides and amino acid derivatives, while rapeseed pollen performed well in phenolic acids (Ferulic acid), as well as specific sugar (Mannose). We identified the differential metabolites of these bee pollen through orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) (VIP > 1). It was also stipulated that metabolites with a VIP value greater than 1.5 showed significant differences and could be used as characteristic metabolites for differentiating pollen (p < 0.05). The representative metabolites of bee pollen were as follows: rapeseed pollen—ferulic acid; tea pollen—malic acid; corn pollen—epicatechin; and rose pollen—fumaric acid. This study provides a research basis for evaluating the quality, traceability, and metabolite exploration of bee pollen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Analytical Methods)

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20 pages, 4708 KB

Open AccessArticle

Different Varieties of Water Caltrop (Trapa bispinosa) Starch: Physicochemical Properties and Digestibility Modulated by Its Multi-Scale Structure

by Tengfei Ma, Qiong Wu, Yuyang Yuan, Xiaoxin Chen, Qinlu Lin, Huaxi Xiao, Jiangtao Li and Wenfang Han

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4304; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244304 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study assessed the physicochemical properties and digestibility of starches derived from five varieties of water caltrop, focusing on their multi-scale structure. Water caltrop starch granules exhibited round, oval, or polygonal shapes with smooth surfaces, exhibiting unimodal particle size distributions and A-, C-, [...] Read more.

This study assessed the physicochemical properties and digestibility of starches derived from five varieties of water caltrop, focusing on their multi-scale structure. Water caltrop starch granules exhibited round, oval, or polygonal shapes with smooth surfaces, exhibiting unimodal particle size distributions and A-, C-, or C/A-type crystal patterns. T.qR‘Green’ exhibited the highest amylose content (30.93%), the lowest peak viscosity and breakdown, and the highest setback. T.bR‘Green’ had the highest crystallinity (29.04%) and endothermic enthalpy (15.39 J/g), with a more ordered internal structure. T.bR‘Red’ had the lowest crystallinity (24.94%), gelatinization temperature, and endothermic enthalpy (8.08 J/g), while showing the highest peak viscosity and breakdown, the lowest setback, and the highest resistant starch content (47.2%), thus possessing stronger resistance to digestion. Pearson correlation analysis revealed that the thermal properties of water caltrop starches were mainly influenced by the amylopectin B-chains and short-range order, while pasting properties were mainly affected by amylopectin B-chains and crystallinity. Amylose content positively influenced solubility but negatively affected swelling power. Additionally, water caltrop starch digestibility showed a negative correlation with granule size and short-range order. These findings indicated the significant impact of starch multi-scale structure on physicochemical properties and digestibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Starch: Properties and Functionality in Food Systems)

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19 pages, 1662 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Different Pretreatments on the Nutrition, Flavor and Sensory Evaluation of Lactobacilli-Fermented Peach Beverages

by Qiaoyu Han, Jiechao Liu, Hui Liu, Qiang Zhang, Zhenzhen Lv, Dalei Chen, Wenbo Yang and Zhonggao Jiao

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4303; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244303 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the behavior and fermentation performance of Lactobacillus in peach purees and juice prepared using different pretreatments, and characterized the nutrition and flavor profiles of various fermented peach samples by using HPLC, HS-SPME-GC/MS and sensory evaluation. The findings showed [...] Read more.

This study aimed to investigate the behavior and fermentation performance of Lactobacillus in peach purees and juice prepared using different pretreatments, and characterized the nutrition and flavor profiles of various fermented peach samples by using HPLC, HS-SPME-GC/MS and sensory evaluation. The findings showed that fermented peach products made from different raw material methods displayed distinct nutritional and sensory properties. The fermented CWP (crushing into puree with peel) had the highest total phenol content (145.20 μg/mL) and antioxidant activity (96.19 μg VC/mL), and fermented COP (crushing into puree without peel) was rich in carotenoids (1575.33 μg/100 mL), with β-carotene (1134.89 μg/100 mL) being the characteristic bioactive compound in this group. Moreover, fermented CWP and COP purees were also notable for their elevated aroma compounds, with total volatile organic compounds increasing 2.35 and 3.29 times after fermentation, respectively. However, fermented SWP juice (squeezing juice with peel) was primarily distinguished by polyphenol biotransformation, and had a similar polyphenol composition to the CWP group. These findings evidenced the advantages and characteristics of different peach matrices as raw materials for plant-based fermentation beverages, and offer strategies for developing functional probiotic fermented drinks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Physics and (Bio)Chemistry)

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23 pages, 6852 KB

Open AccessArticle

Physicochemical Properties of Sprouted Fava Bean Flour–Fermented Red Rice Flour Mixed System and Its Application in Gluten-Free Noodles

by Zhongman Min, Ting Zheng, Jinghan Wang, Wenkai Hu, Qingyu Yang and Yanwen Kong

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4302; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244302 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study investigated the functional, pasting, and rheological properties of sprouted fava bean flour, Lactobacillus plantarum fermented red rice flour, and mixed flour. Then, the study investigated the structural properties of sprouted fava bean dough, fermented red rice dough, and mixed dough, as [...] Read more.

This study investigated the functional, pasting, and rheological properties of sprouted fava bean flour, Lactobacillus plantarum fermented red rice flour, and mixed flour. Then, the study investigated the structural properties of sprouted fava bean dough, fermented red rice dough, and mixed dough, as well as the quality and functional properties of the mixed noodles. The results showed that sprouting and fermentation treatments improved the processing properties of the flour. X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and moisture distribution results of the dough showed that the mixed dough had a more stable structure. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) of the noodles showed that the addition of sprouted fava bean flour was able to mimic the protein network structure to some extent. In addition, germination and fermentation were effective in improving the textural properties, as well as increasing the total phenolic content (1.27–2.03 mg GAE/g) and antioxidant activity, including 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging (43.54–64.84%), 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging (41.37–58.98%), Hydroxyl radical scavenging (19–48.38%), while significantly reducing the estimated glycemic index (74.64–57.60) of the mixed noodles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Engineering and Technology)

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16 pages, 714 KB

Open AccessReview

Mycotoxins in Fish Aquaculture—Occurrence and Future Perspective

by Ana Vulić, Nina Kudumija, Tanja Šegvić-Bubić and Tina Lešić

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4301; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244301 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi which are commonly found as natural contaminants in food and feed worldwide. In recent years, aquaculture research has increasingly focused on changing fish feed by replacing traditional protein sources with plant-based and insect ingredients [...] Read more.

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi which are commonly found as natural contaminants in food and feed worldwide. In recent years, aquaculture research has increasingly focused on changing fish feed by replacing traditional protein sources with plant-based and insect ingredients to promote sustainability. However, this shift has raised concerns about mycotoxin contamination in farmed fish, fish products, and processing by-products. As a result, the pursuit of sustainable aquaculture practices may inadvertently increase the risk of mycotoxin exposure. To date, studies on freshwater fish have focused primarily on regulated mycotoxins, and the findings have demonstrated their occurrence in muscle, liver, intestine, ovaries, and hepatopancreas. Most studies have investigated aflatoxin B1, and its presence has been confirmed in the muscle tissue of several fish species. In marine fish, research has encompassed a broader spectrum of mycotoxins, including emerging and masked forms, across multiple tissues and organs. However, across various studies, conflicting results have been reported regarding the occurrence of emerging mycotoxins, particularly enniatins and beauvericin. This paper reviews current research on mycotoxin contamination in farmed fish, summarising detected levels across freshwater and marine species and in derived products, and also discusses future perspectives on mycotoxin risks in sustainable aquaculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins as Food Contaminants: Detection, Prevalence and Safety Assessment)

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20 pages, 686 KB

Open AccessReview

Monitoring and Maintaining the Freshness of Royal Jelly: A Review of Analytical Approaches and Preservation Technologies

by Yu Zhang, Jing Sun, Rui Chen, Lin Zhang, Xuan Ma, Jiangying Heng, Feng Wang and Xiaofeng Xue

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4300; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244300 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

Royal jelly, a high-value natural product rich in bioactive compounds, is highly susceptible to quality deterioration during storage and processing. However, current quality standards rely predominantly on basic physicochemical parameters and measuring the content of 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA), which fail to capture the [...] Read more.

Royal jelly, a high-value natural product rich in bioactive compounds, is highly susceptible to quality deterioration during storage and processing. However, current quality standards rely predominantly on basic physicochemical parameters and measuring the content of 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA), which fail to capture the comprehensive and dynamic nature of its freshness. This significant knowledge gap hinders the accurate assessment, prediction, and control of royal jelly quality throughout its supply chain. To address this limitation, this review systematically elucidates the molecular mechanisms underlying the deterioration of royal jelly freshness, including key pathways such as protein denaturation, Maillard reactions, enzymatic inactivation, and lipid oxidation, and analyzes the combined effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on its quality stability. It highlights the potential applications of novel biochemical markers—including major royal jelly proteins (MRJPs), Maillard reaction products, enzymatic activity indicators, and energy metabolites—while comparing the advantages and limitations of traditional chromatographic techniques with modern rapid sensing and spectroscopic analysis methods. Regarding preservation, a critical yet inadequately summarized area, this review systematically evaluates the applicability and limitations of various approaches, including low-temperature storage, drying treatments, non-thermal sterilization, microencapsulation, and modified atmosphere packaging. Future directions for integrated quality control are outlined, providing a theoretical basis for holistic quality management of royal jelly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Quality and Safety)

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16 pages, 5814 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Biofilm-Forming Lactic Acid Bacteria from Traditional Fermented Foods and Their Probiotic Potential

by Peilin Yao, Min Kang and Mohd Esah Effarizah

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4299; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244299 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

A biofilm is a self-protective material formed by microorganisms to resist adverse environments. As an important group of microorganisms in the food industry and the human intestine, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) demonstrate enhanced probiotic activity in their biofilm state. In this study, a [...] Read more.

A biofilm is a self-protective material formed by microorganisms to resist adverse environments. As an important group of microorganisms in the food industry and the human intestine, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) demonstrate enhanced probiotic activity in their biofilm state. In this study, a total of 90 LAB isolates from various traditional fermented foods across China were evaluated for their biofilm-forming capacity using the crystal violet staining method. Of these, eight isolates showed strong biofilm-forming capacity. These eight isolates were further evaluated for environmental stress responses, including tolerance to high acid and high bile salt concentrations, resistance to simulated gastrointestinal conditions, and adherence to Caco-2 cells. Four isolates with strong resistance to these stresses and adhesion to Caco-2 cells were selected for comparison between their planktonic and biofilm forms. Among these, the two isolates demonstrating the highest biofilm production capacity were AQ-4 and SY1-3, which were isolated from fermented pear juice and apple juice, respectively. Isolate AQ-4 was then identified as Lactiplantibacillus plantarum based on 16S rDNA sequencing. By integrating biofilm-forming capacity with key biological properties, including stress tolerance and epithelial adhesion, this study focuses on L. plantarum AQ-4, which exhibits distinct microstructural differences between planktonic and biofilm states, as revealed by scanning electron microscopy. The findings suggest that L. plantarum AQ-4 could be used to investigate the differential mechanisms in the planktonic and biofilm states and to act as the theoretical basis for the application of LAB biofilms in the food industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Beneficial Food Microorganisms: Isolation, Identification, Characterization and Applications: 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 780 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Characterization of Bulgarian Forest Honeys: Oak Honeydew and Coniferous Varieties

by Elisaveta Mladenova, Ralitsa Balkanska and Rositsa Shumkova

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4298; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244298 (registering DOI) - 14 Dec 2025

Abstract

The objective of this work was to determine and compare a comprehensive set of quality markers, including main physicochemical properties and element profiles, in samples of Bulgarian oak honeydew honey (OHH) and coniferous honeydew honey (CHH). This investigation utilized a total of seventeen [...] Read more.

The objective of this work was to determine and compare a comprehensive set of quality markers, including main physicochemical properties and element profiles, in samples of Bulgarian oak honeydew honey (OHH) and coniferous honeydew honey (CHH). This investigation utilized a total of seventeen honey samples from Bulgaria harvested in 2022. The sample set comprised ten oak honeydew honey samples, sourced from the Burgas region, and seven coniferous honeydew honey samples obtained from the Smolyan region. The parameters of OHH samples varied within the following ranges: color (80–134 mm Pfund), water content (15.20–18.40%), electrical conductivity (0.80–1.33 mS/cm), specific optical rotation (2.25–12.50

{[α]}_{D}^{20}

), pH (3.92–4.50), total acidity (29.80–36.80 meq/kg), diastase activity (18.36–27.58 Gothe units), invertase activity (56–196 U/kg), proline content (155–477 mg/kg), and hydroxymethylfurfural (3.28–8.94 mg/kg). The CHH samples gave the following results: color (40–87 mm Pfund), water content (16.40–19.00%), electrical conductivity (0.80–1.26 mS/cm), specific optical rotation (−17.50–(−11.50

{[α]}_{D}^{20}

)), pH (3.40–3.75), total acidity (25.80–39.40 meq/kg), diastase activity (23.15–26.05 Gothe units), invertase activity (69–138 U/kg), proline content (287–651 mg/kg), and hydroxymethylfurfural (1.50–3.96 mg/kg). The elements Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, and Mn were determined by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (FAAS), while Flame Atomic Emission Spectrometry (FAES) was used for K and Na determination. Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) analysis was used to assess six elements (Al, Ba, Co, P, Sr, Zn). The elements Cd, Ni, and Pb were determined by Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ETAAS). Potassium is the most abundant macro element in all investigated samples ranging 2332–2370 µg/g in CHH and 1846–1878 µg/g in OHH. Other examined elements are in the following descending order, Mg > P > Na > Ca > Mn > Al > Fe > Zn > Cu > Ba > Sr, presenting in µg/g levels, while Pb > Ni > Co > Cd are present in µg/kg levels. This work constitutes the first report on the physicochemical parameters and chemical elements of coniferous honeydew honey from Bulgaria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Assessing the Quality and Authenticity of Honey and Bee Products)

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26 pages, 7830 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nondestructive Detection of Polyphenol Oxidase Activity in Various Plum Cultivars Using Machine Learning and Vis/NIR Spectroscopy

by Meysam Latifi-Amoghin, Yousef Abbaspour-Gilandeh, Eduardo De La Cruz-Gámez, Mario Hernández-Hernández and José Luis Hernández-Hernández

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4297; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244297 (registering DOI) - 13 Dec 2025

Abstract

Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) is the primary biochemical driver of browning and the subsequent decline of market quality in harvested fruit. In this work, a fully non-invasive analytical framework was built using Visible/Near-Infrared (VIS/NIR) spectroscopy coupled with chemometric modeling in order to estimate PPO [...] Read more.

Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) is the primary biochemical driver of browning and the subsequent decline of market quality in harvested fruit. In this work, a fully non-invasive analytical framework was built using Visible/Near-Infrared (VIS/NIR) spectroscopy coupled with chemometric modeling in order to estimate PPO activity in two commercially relevant plum cultivars (Khormaei and Khoni). A comprehensive comparative study was conducted utilizing multiple machine learning and linear regression techniques, including Support Vector Regression (SVR), Decision Tree (DT), and Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR). After acquiring the full VIS/NIR spectra, a suite of metaheuristic feature selection strategies was applied to compress the spectral space to roughly 10–15 highly informative wavelengths. SVR, DT, and PLSR models were then trained and benchmarked using (a) the complete spectral domain and (b) the reduced wavelength subsets. The results consistently demonstrated that non-linear models (DT and SVR) significantly outperformed the linear PLSR method, confirming the inherent complexity and non-linearity of the relationship between the spectra and PPO activity. Across all tests, DT consistently produced the strongest generalization. Under full spectra inputs, DT reached RPD values of 4.93 for Khormaei and 5.41 for Khoni. Even more importantly, the wavelength-reduced configuration further enhanced performance while substantially lowering computational cost, yielding RPDs of 3.32 (Khormaei) and 5.69 (Khoni). The results show that VIS/NIR combined with optimized key-wavelength DT modeling provides a robust, fast, and field-realistic route for quantifying PPO activity in plums without physical destruction of the product. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Engineering and Technology)

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17 pages, 1664 KB

Open AccessArticle

Onion-Peel Carbon Quantum Dots: Antimicrobial Effect and Biofilm Control on Food Contact Surfaces

by Ji Min Ahn, Yeon Ho Kim, Jong-Whan Rhim and Ki Sun Yoon

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4296; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244296 (registering DOI) - 13 Dec 2025

Abstract

As by-products rich in flavonoids and phenolic compounds, onion peels are globally undervalued and often discarded. This study reports the synthesis of carbon quantum dots (CQDs) from onion peels and evaluates their antimicrobial effectiveness against key foodborne pathogens and biofilms on common food [...] Read more.

As by-products rich in flavonoids and phenolic compounds, onion peels are globally undervalued and often discarded. This study reports the synthesis of carbon quantum dots (CQDs) from onion peels and evaluates their antimicrobial effectiveness against key foodborne pathogens and biofilms on common food contact surfaces, including plastic, stainless steel, and rubber. The CQDs exhibited a quasi-spherical shape with particle sizes ranging from 1.7 to 9.0 nm and contained abundant oxygen- and nitrogen-functional groups, as confirmed by FT-IR and XPS analyses. The CQDs showed significant antimicrobial activity, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) against Salmonella Typhimurium, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus of 2200/2800 µg/mL, 1400/2000 µg/mL, 1200/1800 µg/mL, and 400/600 µg/mL, respectively. Time-kill assays confirmed these results. In biofilm tests, S. Typhimurium formed biofilms more easily than L. monocytogenes. Washing with CQD solution for 5 min reduced biofilm presence by 81.6–91.5% for S. Typhimurium and over 74% for L. monocytogenes, with more than 94% reduction after 10 min of treatment (over 94% for S. Typhimurium; 95.8–98.8% for L. monocytogenes) across all surfaces, especially on plastic and stainless steel. These findings indicate that onion peel-derived CQDs are promising, eco-friendly agents for disrupting biofilms and turning undervalued waste into valuable products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Converting Food Waste into Value-Added Products (Second Edition))

7 pages, 844 KB

Open AccessBrief Report

Microscopy and Image Analysis-Based Identification of High- and Low-Pressure Mechanically Separated Pork Meat

by Marzia Pezzolato, Elena Biasibetti, Francesco Pennisi, Giovanna Esposito, Riccardo Provera, Nunzia Giaccio, Cristiana Maurella and Elena Bozzetta

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4295; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244295 (registering DOI) - 13 Dec 2025

Abstract

Mechanically separated meat (MSM) is a product of animal origin obtained by applying mechanical force to remove residual meat from bones, a process that results in the loss or modification of muscle fiber structure. Its use is regulated in the European Union. Clearly [...] Read more.

Mechanically separated meat (MSM) is a product of animal origin obtained by applying mechanical force to remove residual meat from bones, a process that results in the loss or modification of muscle fiber structure. Its use is regulated in the European Union. Clearly distinguishing MSM from non-MSM is essential not only to maintain high product standards but also to ensure full compliance with food labeling regulations and to meet consumer expectations for transparency. This study aimed to evaluate a standardized histological protocol for differentiating high-pressure MSM, low-pressure MSM, and non-MSM pork meat using light microscopy, combined with image analysis and statistical evaluation. In total 40 MSM samples (20 high-pressure, 20 low-pressure) and 20 non-MSM samples were analyzed. The histological protocol achieved 100% sensitivity and specificity in distinguishing MSM from non-MSM. Image analysis revealed significant differences between high- and low-pressure MSM in calcium aggregate parameters. The method provides a reliable, cost-effective tool for MSM identification in routine food inspection. However, because the study was conducted exclusively on pork samples, the results should be interpreted within the context of this type of meat. Additional validation across other species and production systems is required to confirm the broader applicability of the method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements and Applications of Imaging and Hyperspectral Technologies in Non-Destructive Food Testing)

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18 pages, 880 KB

Open AccessArticle

Upcycling Grape Pomace in a Plant-Based Yogurt Alternative: Starter Selection, Phenolic Profiling, and Antioxidant Efficacy on Human Keratinocytes

by Andrea Torreggiani, Mario Caponio, Daniela Pinto, Giorgia Mondadori, Vito Verardo, Ana María Gómez-Caravaca, Michela Verni and Carlo Giuseppe Rizzello

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4294; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244294 (registering DOI) - 13 Dec 2025

Abstract

Due to its appealing composition, grape pomace (GP), the major by-product of the wine industry, could be considered an ideal candidate for innovative functional foods development. In this study, a rice/GP-yogurt alternative, also known as gurt, fermented with selected lactic acid bacteria, was [...] Read more.

Due to its appealing composition, grape pomace (GP), the major by-product of the wine industry, could be considered an ideal candidate for innovative functional foods development. In this study, a rice/GP-yogurt alternative, also known as gurt, fermented with selected lactic acid bacteria, was designed. An extensive characterization of the gurts led to the selection of the one fermented with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum T0A10. The strains showed good pro-technological performances (fast acidification and growth up to 9 log cfu/g in the specific plant-based composite substrate), as well as the ability to increase DPPH radical scavenging activity compared to the unfermented control (57% against 40%). Then, an in-depth focus on the effect of fermentation on phenolic compounds and their related antioxidant efficacy on human keratinocytes was provided, elucidating a compound/function relationship. Fermentation significantly modified the phenolic profile of the gurt, reducing glycosylated forms of flavonols and phenolic acids and increasing the content of catechin and pyrogallol (more than 100 mg/kg combined). Such modification was responsible for significantly up-regulating (p < 0.05) the expression of the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase 2, thus protecting NCTC 2544 cells against oxidative stress. Overall, these findings provide a foundation for developing value-added products from GP, supporting both circular economy initiatives and functional ingredient innovation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Approaches to Obtaining Functional Compounds from Agri-Food Byproducts)

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18 pages, 2985 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bioprotective Potential of Pediococcus acidilactici L1 and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum HG1-1 in Harbin Red Sausage Under Vacuum Packaging

by Qiang Wang, Kaida Zhang, Qian Chen, Haotian Liu, Chao Zhang, Qian Liu and Baohua Kong

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4293; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244293 (registering DOI) - 13 Dec 2025

Abstract

Effective biopreservation strategies are essential to maintain product quality and extend shelf life. However, the low storage temperature (4 °C) of low-temperature meat products limits the growth and activity of most protective cultures, highlighting the need for psychrotrophic strains. This study evaluated the [...] Read more.

Effective biopreservation strategies are essential to maintain product quality and extend shelf life. However, the low storage temperature (4 °C) of low-temperature meat products limits the growth and activity of most protective cultures, highlighting the need for psychrotrophic strains. This study evaluated the impact of various bioprotective cultures on the bacterial counts, physicochemical quality, flavor profile, and sensory characteristics of the Harbin red sausage under vacuum packaging for 28 days. In comparison with the control (uninoculated) and B2 (commercial Latilactobacillus sakei B2) groups, individual and mixed (1:1) inoculations with psychrotrophic Pediococcus acidilactici L1 and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum HG1-1 significantly inhibited the growth of Acinetobacter and Staphylococcus (p < 0.05), providing the sausage with superior color and texture and delaying lipid oxidation, thereby improving the sausage’s overall acceptability on day 28. The electronic nose analyses indicated that Harbin red sausages inoculated with individual and mixed cultures of Pe. acidilactici L1 and Lac. plantarum HG1-1 exhibited less development of odor compounds during storage. Overall, both individual and mixed inoculations with Pe. acidilactici L1 and Lac. plantarum HG1-1 showed superior bioprotective effects on Harbin red sausages under vacuum packaging compared with commercial Lat. sakei B2, with the mixed inoculation treatment being the most effective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Meat Processing Technologies: Innovations in Quality, Safety, and Sensory)

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12 pages, 720 KB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence of Melamine and Cyanuric Acid in Milk, Baby Food, and Protein Supplements Marketed in Croatia

by Bruno Čalopek, Nina Bilandžić, Ivana Varenina, Ines Varga, Božica Solomun Kolanović, Maja Đokić, Jelena Kaurinović, Renata Biba, Mario Cindrić and Marija Sedak

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4292; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244292 (registering DOI) - 13 Dec 2025

Abstract

The aim of this study is to investigate the occurrence of melamine and cyanuric acid in milk, baby food, and protein supplements collected in Croatia. A total of 56 samples were collected during 2022 and 2023 from retail stores in Zagreb, Croatia. Sample [...] Read more.

The aim of this study is to investigate the occurrence of melamine and cyanuric acid in milk, baby food, and protein supplements collected in Croatia. A total of 56 samples were collected during 2022 and 2023 from retail stores in Zagreb, Croatia. Sample preparation involved acetonitrile extraction, followed by analysis using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Cyanuric acid concentrations above the limit of quantification (LOQ) were found in five milk samples (33.3% detection frequency), with a range from 0.26 to 0.39 mg/kg and a mean concentration of 0.31 mg/kg. In protein supplements, melamine was detected above the LOQ in six samples (23% detection frequency), with a mean concentration of 0.30 mg/kg and concentrations ranging from 0.20 to 0.57 mg/kg. No concentrations above the LOQ were found in baby food samples. All detected values were below the EU maximum limits (2.5 mg/kg for general food and 1.0 mg/kg for baby food). The accuracy and reliability of the method were verified using certified reference material. This is the first study to confirm the presence of melamine and cyanuric acid in protein supplements and milk on the Croatian market. The detected levels do not indicate a potential health risk to consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Food Quality and Safety)

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