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Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring
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Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2015) | Viewed by 187611

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Thomas Schumacher

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Civil and Environmental Engineering, Portland State University, Portland, OR 97201, USA
Interests: novel sensing methodologies for non-destructive testing (NDT) and structural health monitoring (SHM) of civil infrastructure: Quantitative acoustic emission monitoring, carbon nanotube-based sensing composites, digital video-based monitoring; behavior and durability of concrete structures; sustainable structures; probabilistic approaches
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The fields of non-destructive testing (NDT) and structural health monitoring (SHM) have become of great importance to inspect and maintain structures and mechanical systems. Sensors represent the ‘ears’ and ‘eyes’ of NDT and SHM and are thus a crucial element in the measurement process. Over the past few decades, new advanced sensors and sensing methodologies have been developed in laboratories and evaluated in the field. Cross-pollination from other fields such as the geosciences and medicine have introduced new ideas and further propelled advancement of existing sensing methodologies.

In this Special Issue, we solicit review articles, original research papers, and short communications covering novel sensors and sensing methodologies for NDT and SHM of structures (e.g. buildings, bridges, off-shore platforms) and mechanical systems (e.g. aerospace, automobile, power generation). Particularly, we are interested in recent developments with respect to the actual sensing aspect, as opposed to the signal analysis approaches or interpretation of collected data. Sensors and sensing methodologies of interest include, but are not limited to: Novel physical sensors, distributed sensors, optical and other non-contact sensors, and MEMS sensors. A typical submission should explain the properties and physics of the sensor, describe the physical entity inferred from the measurement, discuss the applications and limitations using laboratory or field data, and deliberate the level of readiness for application, including state of standard and code development (if applicable).

Please don’t hesitate to contact me should you be uncertain whether your work falls within the general scope of this Special Issue. I look forward to your contribution!

Dr. Thomas Schumacher
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.


Published Papers (23 papers)

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Research

4020 KiB  
Article
A Low-Cost Energy-Efficient Cableless Geophone Unit for Passive Surface Wave Surveys
by Kaoshan Dai, Xiaofeng Li, Chuan Lu, Qingyu You, Zhenhua Huang and H. Felix Wu
Sensors 2015, 15(10), 24698-24715; https://doi.org/10.3390/s151024698 - 25 Sep 2015
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 9749
Abstract
The passive surface wave survey is a practical, non-invasive seismic exploration method that has increasingly been used in geotechnical engineering. However, in situ deployment of traditional wired geophones is labor intensive for a dense sensor array. Alternatively, stand-alone seismometers can be used, but [...] Read more.
The passive surface wave survey is a practical, non-invasive seismic exploration method that has increasingly been used in geotechnical engineering. However, in situ deployment of traditional wired geophones is labor intensive for a dense sensor array. Alternatively, stand-alone seismometers can be used, but they are bulky, heavy, and expensive because they are usually designed for long-term monitoring. To better facilitate field applications of the passive surface wave survey, a low-cost energy-efficient geophone system was developed in this study. The hardware design is presented in this paper. To validate the system’s functionality, both laboratory and field experiments were conducted. The unique feature of this newly-developed cableless geophone system allows for rapid field applications of the passive surface wave survey with dense array measurements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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6797 KiB  
Article
Processing and Characterization of a Novel Distributed Strain Sensor Using Carbon Nanotube-Based Nonwoven Composites
by Hongbo Dai, Erik T. Thostenson and Thomas Schumacher
Sensors 2015, 15(7), 17728-17747; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150717728 - 21 Jul 2015
Cited by 62 | Viewed by 9843
Abstract
This paper describes the development of an innovative carbon nanotube-based non-woven composite sensor that can be tailored for strain sensing properties and potentially offers a reliable and cost-effective sensing option for structural health monitoring (SHM). This novel strain sensor is fabricated using a [...] Read more.
This paper describes the development of an innovative carbon nanotube-based non-woven composite sensor that can be tailored for strain sensing properties and potentially offers a reliable and cost-effective sensing option for structural health monitoring (SHM). This novel strain sensor is fabricated using a readily scalable process of coating Carbon nanotubes (CNT) onto a nonwoven carrier fabric to form an electrically-isotropic conductive network. Epoxy is then infused into the CNT-modified fabric to form a free-standing nanocomposite strain sensor. By measuring the changes in the electrical properties of the sensing composite the deformation can be measured in real-time. The sensors are repeatable and linear up to 0.4% strain. Highest elastic strain gage factors of 1.9 and 4.0 have been achieved in the longitudinal and transverse direction, respectively. Although the longitudinal gage factor of the newly formed nanocomposite sensor is close to some metallic foil strain gages, the proposed sensing methodology offers spatial coverage, manufacturing customizability, distributed sensing capability as well as transverse sensitivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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798 KiB  
Article
Ultrasonic Lateral Displacement Sensor for Health Monitoring in Seismically Isolated Buildings
by Iwao Matsuya, Fumiya Matsumoto and Ikuo Ihara
Sensors 2015, 15(7), 17000-17012; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150717000 - 13 Jul 2015
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6242
Abstract
An ultrasonic lateral displacement sensor utilizing air-coupled ultrasound transducers is proposed. The normally-distributed far field of an ultrasound transducer in a lateral direction is taken advantage of for measuring lateral displacement. The measurement system is composed of several air-coupled ultrasound transducers as a [...] Read more.
An ultrasonic lateral displacement sensor utilizing air-coupled ultrasound transducers is proposed. The normally-distributed far field of an ultrasound transducer in a lateral direction is taken advantage of for measuring lateral displacement. The measurement system is composed of several air-coupled ultrasound transducers as a receiver and several transmitters. The transmitters are immobilized at a fixed point, whereas the receiver set-up is separately arranged on the opposite side. In order to improve measurement accuracy, a correction method that utilizes polynomial approximation is introduced. The difference between the corrected lateral displacement and the reference displacement is estimated to be 0.2 mm at maximum for the two transmitters system. A good responsiveness is demonstrated by conducting a dynamic response experiment. When five transmitters are arranged, their measurement range is easily extended up to ±60 mm with an accuracy of 0.7 mm. In both cases, the fluctuations to the measurement ranges show less than 1%. These results indicate that the developed sensor system is useful for measuring relative lateral displacement of a seismically isolated building in the field of structural health monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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4222 KiB  
Article
An Electromagnetic Sensor with a Metamaterial Lens for Nondestructive Evaluation of Composite Materials
by Adriana Savin, Rozina Steigmann, Alina Bruma and Roman Šturm
Sensors 2015, 15(7), 15903-15920; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150715903 - 03 Jul 2015
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 8861
Abstract
This paper proposes the study and implementation of a sensor with a metamaterial (MM) lens in electromagnetic nondestructive evaluation (eNDE). Thus, the use of a new type of MM, named Conical Swiss Rolls (CSR) has been proposed. These structures can serve as electromagnetic [...] Read more.
This paper proposes the study and implementation of a sensor with a metamaterial (MM) lens in electromagnetic nondestructive evaluation (eNDE). Thus, the use of a new type of MM, named Conical Swiss Rolls (CSR) has been proposed. These structures can serve as electromagnetic flux concentrators in the radiofrequency range. As a direct application, plates of composite materials with carbon fibers woven as reinforcement and polyphenylene sulphide as matrix with delaminations due to low energy impacts were examined. The evaluation method is based on the appearance of evanescent modes in the space between carbon fibers when the sample is excited with a transversal magnetic along z axis (TMz) polarized electromagnetic field. The MM lens allows the transmission and intensification of evanescent waves. The characteristics of carbon fibers woven structure became visible and delaminations are clearly emphasized. The flaws can be localized with spatial resolution better than λ/2000. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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4382 KiB  
Article
MEMS Microphone Array Sensor for Air-Coupled Impact-Echo
by Robin Groschup and Christian U. Grosse
Sensors 2015, 15(7), 14932-14945; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150714932 - 25 Jun 2015
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 11885
Abstract
Impact-Echo (IE) is a nondestructive testing technique for plate like concrete structures. We propose a new sensor concept for air-coupled IE measurements. By using an array of MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical system) microphones, instead of a single receiver, several operational advantages compared to conventional sensing [...] Read more.
Impact-Echo (IE) is a nondestructive testing technique for plate like concrete structures. We propose a new sensor concept for air-coupled IE measurements. By using an array of MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical system) microphones, instead of a single receiver, several operational advantages compared to conventional sensing strategies in IE are achieved. The MEMS microphone array sensor is cost effective, less sensitive to undesired effects like acoustic noise and has an optimized sensitivity for signals that need to be extracted for IE data interpretation. The proposed sensing strategy is justified with findings from numerical simulations, showing that the IE resonance in plate like structures causes coherent surface displacements on the specimen under test in an area around the impact location. Therefore, by placing several MEMS microphones on a sensor array board, the IE resonance is easier to be identified in the recorded spectra than with single point microphones or contact type transducers. A comparative measurement between the array sensor, a conventional accelerometer and a measurement microphone clearly shows the suitability of MEMS type microphones and the advantages of using these microphones in an array arrangement for IE. The MEMS microphone array will make air-coupled IE measurements faster and more reliable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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6340 KiB  
Article
Novel Monitoring Techniques for Characterizing Frictional Interfaces in the Laboratory
by Paul A. Selvadurai and Steven D. Glaser
Sensors 2015, 15(5), 9791-9814; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150509791 - 27 Apr 2015
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5468
Abstract
A pressure-sensitive film was used to characterize the asperity contacts along a polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) interface in the laboratory. The film has structural health monitoring (SHM) applications for flanges and other precision fittings and train rail condition monitoring. To calibrate the film, simple [...] Read more.
A pressure-sensitive film was used to characterize the asperity contacts along a polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) interface in the laboratory. The film has structural health monitoring (SHM) applications for flanges and other precision fittings and train rail condition monitoring. To calibrate the film, simple spherical indentation tests were performed and validated against a finite element model (FEM) to compare normal stress profiles. Experimental measurements of the normal stress profiles were within −7.7% to 6.6% of the numerical calculations between 12 and 50 MPa asperity normal stress. The film also possessed the capability of quantifying surface roughness, an important parameter when examining wear and attrition in SHM applications. A high definition video camera supplied data for photometric analysis (i.e., the measure of visible light) of asperities along the PMMA-PMMA interface in a direct shear configuration, taking advantage of the transparent nature of the sample material. Normal stress over individual asperities, calculated with the pressure-sensitive film, was compared to the light intensity transmitted through the interface. We found that the luminous intensity transmitted through individual asperities linearly increased 0.05643 ± 0.0012 candelas for an increase of 1 MPa in normal stress between normal stresses ranging from 23 to 33 MPa. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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2493 KiB  
Article
Embedded Ultrasonic Transducers for Active and Passive Concrete Monitoring
by Ernst Niederleithinger, Julia Wolf, Frank Mielentz, Herbert Wiggenhauser and Stephan Pirskawetz
Sensors 2015, 15(5), 9756-9772; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150509756 - 27 Apr 2015
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 10714
Abstract
Recently developed new transducers for ultrasonic transmission, which can be embedded right into concrete, are now used for non-destructive permanent monitoring of concrete. They can be installed during construction or thereafter. Large volumes of concrete can be monitored for changes of material properties [...] Read more.
Recently developed new transducers for ultrasonic transmission, which can be embedded right into concrete, are now used for non-destructive permanent monitoring of concrete. They can be installed during construction or thereafter. Large volumes of concrete can be monitored for changes of material properties by a limited number of transducers. The transducer design, the main properties as well as installation procedures are presented. It is shown that compressional waves with a central frequency of 62 kHz are mainly generated around the transducer’s axis. The transducer can be used as a transmitter or receiver. Application examples demonstrate that the transducers can be used to monitor concrete conditions parameters (stress, temperature, …) as well as damages in an early state or the detection of acoustic events (e.g., crack opening). Besides application in civil engineering our setups can also be used for model studies in geosciences. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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1168 KiB  
Article
Using Silver Nano-Particle Ink in Electrode Fabrication of High Frequency Copolymer Ultrasonic Transducers: Modeling and Experimental Investigation
by Adit Decharat, Sanat Wagle, Svein Jacobsen and Frank Melandsø
Sensors 2015, 15(4), 9210-9227; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150409210 - 20 Apr 2015
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6251
Abstract
High frequency polymer-based ultrasonic transducers are produced with electrodes thicknesses typical for printed electrodes obtained from silver (Ag) nano-particle inks. An analytical three-port network is used to study the acoustic effects imposed by a thick electrode in a typical layered transducer configuration. Results [...] Read more.
High frequency polymer-based ultrasonic transducers are produced with electrodes thicknesses typical for printed electrodes obtained from silver (Ag) nano-particle inks. An analytical three-port network is used to study the acoustic effects imposed by a thick electrode in a typical layered transducer configuration. Results from the network model are compared to experimental findings for the implemented transducer configuration, to obtain a better understanding of acoustical effects caused by the additional printed mass loading. The proposed investigation might be supportive of identification of suitable electrode-depositing methods. It is also believed to be useful as a feasibility study for printed Ag-based electrodes in high frequency transducers, which may reduce both the cost and production complexity of these devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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1590 KiB  
Article
Application of Micro-Electro-Mechanical Sensors Contactless NDT of Concrete Structures
by Suyun Ham and John S. Popovics
Sensors 2015, 15(4), 9078-9096; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150409078 - 17 Apr 2015
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 9044
Abstract
The utility of micro-electro-mechanical sensors (MEMS) for application in air-coupled (contactless or noncontact) sensing to concrete nondestructive testing (NDT) is studied in this paper. The fundamental operation and characteristics of MEMS are first described. Then application of MEMS sensors toward established concrete test [...] Read more.
The utility of micro-electro-mechanical sensors (MEMS) for application in air-coupled (contactless or noncontact) sensing to concrete nondestructive testing (NDT) is studied in this paper. The fundamental operation and characteristics of MEMS are first described. Then application of MEMS sensors toward established concrete test methods, including vibration resonance, impact-echo, ultrasonic surface wave, and multi-channel analysis of surface waves (MASW), is demonstrated. In each test application, the performance of MEMS is compared with conventional contactless and contact sensing technology. Favorable performance of the MEMS sensors demonstrates the potential of the technology for applied contactless NDT efforts. Objective: To illustrate the utility of air-coupled MEMS sensors for concrete NDT, as compared with conventional sensor technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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1948 KiB  
Article
Monitoring the Corrosion Process of Reinforced Concrete Using BOTDA and FBG Sensors
by Jianghong Mao, Jiayun Chen, Lei Cui, Weiliang Jin, Chen Xu and Yong He
Sensors 2015, 15(4), 8866-8883; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150408866 - 15 Apr 2015
Cited by 55 | Viewed by 7800
Abstract
Expansion and cracking induced by the corrosion of reinforcement concrete is the major factor in the failure of concrete durability. Therefore, monitoring of concrete cracking is critical for evaluating the safety of concrete structures. In this paper, we introduce a novel monitoring method [...] Read more.
Expansion and cracking induced by the corrosion of reinforcement concrete is the major factor in the failure of concrete durability. Therefore, monitoring of concrete cracking is critical for evaluating the safety of concrete structures. In this paper, we introduce a novel monitoring method combining Brillouin optical time domain analysis (BOTDA) and fiber Bragg grating (FBG), based on mechanical principles of concrete expansion cracking. BOTDA monitors concrete expansion and crack width, while FBG identifies the time and position of cracking. A water-pressure loading simulation test was carried out to determine the relationship between fiber strain, concrete expansion and crack width. An electrical accelerated corrosion test was also conducted to evaluate the ability of this novel sensor to monitor concrete cracking under practical conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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2348 KiB  
Article
Multi-Camera and Structured-Light Vision System (MSVS) for Dynamic High-Accuracy 3D Measurements of Railway Tunnels
by Dong Zhan, Long Yu, Jian Xiao and Tanglong Chen
Sensors 2015, 15(4), 8664-8684; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150408664 - 14 Apr 2015
Cited by 55 | Viewed by 7936
Abstract
Railway tunnel 3D clearance inspection is critical to guaranteeing railway operation safety. However, it is a challenge to inspect railway tunnel 3D clearance using a vision system, because both the spatial range and field of view (FOV) of such measurements are quite large. [...] Read more.
Railway tunnel 3D clearance inspection is critical to guaranteeing railway operation safety. However, it is a challenge to inspect railway tunnel 3D clearance using a vision system, because both the spatial range and field of view (FOV) of such measurements are quite large. This paper summarizes our work on dynamic railway tunnel 3D clearance inspection based on a multi-camera and structured-light vision system (MSVS). First, the configuration of the MSVS is described. Then, the global calibration for the MSVS is discussed in detail. The onboard vision system is mounted on a dedicated vehicle and is expected to suffer from multiple degrees of freedom vibrations brought about by the running vehicle. Any small vibration can result in substantial measurement errors. In order to overcome this problem, a vehicle motion deviation rectifying method is investigated. Experiments using the vision inspection system are conducted with satisfactory online measurement results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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2033 KiB  
Article
Bridge Displacement Monitoring Method Based on Laser Projection-Sensing Technology
by Xuefeng Zhao, Hao Liu, Yan Yu, Xiaodong Xu, Weitong Hu, Mingchu Li and Jingping Ou
Sensors 2015, 15(4), 8444-8463; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150408444 - 13 Apr 2015
Cited by 64 | Viewed by 8831
Abstract
Bridge displacement is the most basic evaluation index of the health status of a bridge structure. The existing measurement methods for bridge displacement basically fail to realize long-term and real-time dynamic monitoring of bridge structures, because of the low degree of automation and [...] Read more.
Bridge displacement is the most basic evaluation index of the health status of a bridge structure. The existing measurement methods for bridge displacement basically fail to realize long-term and real-time dynamic monitoring of bridge structures, because of the low degree of automation and the insufficient precision, causing bottlenecks and restriction. To solve this problem, we proposed a bridge displacement monitoring system based on laser projection-sensing technology. First, the laser spot recognition method was studied. Second, the software for the displacement monitoring system was developed. Finally, a series of experiments using this system were conducted, and the results show that such a system has high measurement accuracy and speed. We aim to develop a low-cost, high-accuracy and long-term monitoring method for bridge displacement based on these preliminary efforts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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4735 KiB  
Article
Detection of Steel Fatigue Cracks with Strain Sensing Sheets Based on Large Area Electronics
by Yao Yao and Branko Glisic
Sensors 2015, 15(4), 8088-8108; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150408088 - 07 Apr 2015
Cited by 102 | Viewed by 8920
Abstract
Reliable early-stage damage detection requires continuous monitoring over large areas of structure, and with sensors of high spatial resolution. Technologies based on Large Area Electronics (LAE) can enable direct sensing and can be scaled to the level required for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) [...] Read more.
Reliable early-stage damage detection requires continuous monitoring over large areas of structure, and with sensors of high spatial resolution. Technologies based on Large Area Electronics (LAE) can enable direct sensing and can be scaled to the level required for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) of civil structures and infrastructure. Sensing sheets based on LAE contain dense arrangements of thin-film strain sensors, associated electronics and various control circuits deposited and integrated on a flexible polyimide substrate that can cover large areas of structures. This paper presents the development stage of a prototype strain sensing sheet based on LAE for crack detection and localization. Two types of sensing-sheet arrangements with size 6 × 6 inch (152 × 152 mm) were designed and manufactured, one with a very dense arrangement of sensors and the other with a less dense arrangement of sensors. The sensing sheets were bonded to steel plates, which had a notch on the boundary, so the fatigue cracks could be generated under cyclic loading. The sensors within the sensing sheet that were close to the notch tip successfully detected the initialization of fatigue crack and localized the damage on the plate. The sensors that were away from the crack successfully detected the propagation of fatigue cracks based on the time history of the measured strain. The results of the tests have validated the general principles of the proposed sensing sheets for crack detection and identified advantages and challenges of the two tested designs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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2389 KiB  
Article
A Noncontact FMCW Radar Sensor for Displacement Measurement in Structural Health Monitoring
by Cunlong Li, Weimin Chen, Gang Liu, Rong Yan, Hengyi Xu and Yi Qi
Sensors 2015, 15(4), 7412-7433; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150407412 - 26 Mar 2015
Cited by 60 | Viewed by 10052
Abstract
This paper investigates the Frequency Modulation Continuous Wave (FMCW) radar sensor for multi-target displacement measurement in Structural Health Monitoring (SHM). The principle of three-dimensional (3-D) displacement measurement of civil infrastructures is analyzed. The requirements of high-accuracy displacement and multi-target identification for the measuring [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the Frequency Modulation Continuous Wave (FMCW) radar sensor for multi-target displacement measurement in Structural Health Monitoring (SHM). The principle of three-dimensional (3-D) displacement measurement of civil infrastructures is analyzed. The requirements of high-accuracy displacement and multi-target identification for the measuring sensors are discussed. The fundamental measuring principle of FMCW radar is presented with rigorous mathematical formulas, and further the multiple-target displacement measurement is analyzed and simulated. In addition, a FMCW radar prototype is designed and fabricated based on an off-the-shelf radar frontend and data acquisition (DAQ) card, and the displacement error induced by phase asynchronism is analyzed. The conducted outdoor experiments verify the feasibility of this sensing method applied to multi-target displacement measurement, and experimental results show that three targets located at different distances can be distinguished simultaneously with millimeter level accuracy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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3192 KiB  
Article
Optical Sensing of the Fatigue Damage State of CFRP under Realistic Aeronautical Load Sequences
by Pablo Zuluaga-Ramírez, Álvaro Arconada, Malte Frövel, Tomás Belenguer and Félix Salazar
Sensors 2015, 15(3), 5710-5721; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150305710 - 09 Mar 2015
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5135
Abstract
We present an optical sensing methodology to estimate the fatigue damage state of structures made of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP), by measuring variations on the surface roughness. Variable amplitude loads (VAL), which represent realistic loads during aeronautical missions of fighter aircraft (FALSTAFF) [...] Read more.
We present an optical sensing methodology to estimate the fatigue damage state of structures made of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP), by measuring variations on the surface roughness. Variable amplitude loads (VAL), which represent realistic loads during aeronautical missions of fighter aircraft (FALSTAFF) have been applied to coupons until failure. Stiffness degradation and surface roughness variations have been measured during the life of the coupons obtaining a Pearson correlation of 0.75 between both variables. The data were compared with a previous study for Constant Amplitude Load (CAL) obtaining similar results. Conclusions suggest that the surface roughness measured in strategic zones is a useful technique for structural health monitoring of CFRP structures, and that it is independent of the type of load applied. Surface roughness can be measured in the field by optical techniques such as speckle, confocal perfilometers and interferometry, among others. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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7354 KiB  
Article
Citizen Sensors for SHM: Use of Accelerometer Data from Smartphones
by Maria Feng, Yoshio Fukuda, Masato Mizuta and Ekin Ozer
Sensors 2015, 15(2), 2980-2998; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150202980 - 29 Jan 2015
Cited by 113 | Viewed by 10426
Abstract
Ubiquitous smartphones have created a significant opportunity to form a low-cost wireless Citizen Sensor network and produce big data for monitoring structural integrity and safety under operational and extreme loads. Such data are particularly useful for rapid assessment of structural damage in a [...] Read more.
Ubiquitous smartphones have created a significant opportunity to form a low-cost wireless Citizen Sensor network and produce big data for monitoring structural integrity and safety under operational and extreme loads. Such data are particularly useful for rapid assessment of structural damage in a large urban setting after a major event such as an earthquake. This study explores the utilization of smartphone accelerometers for measuring structural vibration, from which structural health and post-event damage can be diagnosed. Widely available smartphones are tested under sinusoidal wave excitations with frequencies in the range relevant to civil engineering structures. Large-scale seismic shaking table tests, observing input ground motion and response of a structural model, are carried out to evaluate the accuracy of smartphone accelerometers under operational, white-noise and earthquake excitations of different intensity. Finally, the smartphone accelerometers are tested on a dynamically loaded bridge. The extensive experiments show satisfactory agreements between the reference and smartphone sensor measurements in both time and frequency domains, demonstrating the capability of the smartphone sensors to measure structural responses ranging from low-amplitude ambient vibration to high-amplitude seismic response. Encouraged by the results of this study, the authors are developing a citizen-engaging and data-analytics crowdsourcing platform towards a smartphone-based Citizen Sensor network for structural health monitoring and post-event damage assessment applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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3182 KiB  
Article
A Novel High Sensitivity Sensor for Remote Field Eddy Current Non-Destructive Testing Based on Orthogonal Magnetic Field
by Xiaojie Xu, Ming Liu, Zhanbin Zhang and Yueling Jia
Sensors 2014, 14(12), 24098-24115; https://doi.org/10.3390/s141224098 - 12 Dec 2014
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 9168
Abstract
Remote field eddy current is an effective non-destructive testing method for ferromagnetic tubular structures. In view of conventional sensors’ disadvantages such as low signal-to-noise ratio and poor sensitivity to axial cracks, a novel high sensitivity sensor based on orthogonal magnetic field excitation is [...] Read more.
Remote field eddy current is an effective non-destructive testing method for ferromagnetic tubular structures. In view of conventional sensors’ disadvantages such as low signal-to-noise ratio and poor sensitivity to axial cracks, a novel high sensitivity sensor based on orthogonal magnetic field excitation is proposed. Firstly, through a three-dimensional finite element simulation, the remote field effect under orthogonal magnetic field excitation is determined, and an appropriate configuration which can generate an orthogonal magnetic field for a tubular structure is developed. Secondly, optimized selection of key parameters such as frequency, exciting currents and shielding modes is analyzed in detail, and different types of pick-up coils, including a new self-differential mode pick-up coil, are designed and analyzed. Lastly, the proposed sensor is verified experimentally by various types of defects manufactured on a section of a ferromagnetic tube. Experimental results show that the proposed novel sensor can largely improve the sensitivity of defect detection, especially for axial crack whose depth is less than 40% wall thickness, which are very difficult to detect and identify by conventional sensors. Another noteworthy advantage of the proposed sensor is that it has almost equal sensitivity to various types of defects, when a self-differential mode pick-up coil is adopted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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3224 KiB  
Article
An Embedded Stress Sensor for Concrete SHM Based on Amorphous Ferromagnetic Microwires
by Jesús Olivera, Margarita González, José Vicente Fuente, Rastislav Varga, Arkady Zhukov and José Javier Anaya
Sensors 2014, 14(11), 19963-19978; https://doi.org/10.3390/s141119963 - 24 Oct 2014
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 7658
Abstract
A new smart concrete aggregate design as a candidate for applications in structural health monitoring (SHM) of critical elements in civil infrastructure is proposed. The cement-based stress/strain sensor was developed by utilizing the stress/strain sensing properties of a magnetic microwire embedded in cement-based [...] Read more.
A new smart concrete aggregate design as a candidate for applications in structural health monitoring (SHM) of critical elements in civil infrastructure is proposed. The cement-based stress/strain sensor was developed by utilizing the stress/strain sensing properties of a magnetic microwire embedded in cement-based composite (MMCC). This is a contact-less type sensor that measures variations of magnetic properties resulting from stress variations. Sensors made of these materials can be designed to satisfy the specific demand for an economic way to monitor concrete infrastructure health. For this purpose, we embedded a thin magnetic microwire in the core of a cement-based cylinder, which was inserted into the concrete specimen under study as an extra aggregate. The experimental results show that the embedded MMCC sensor is capable of measuring internal compressive stress around the range of 1–30 MPa. Two stress sensing properties of the embedded sensor under uniaxial compression were studied: the peak amplitude and peak position of magnetic switching field. The sensitivity values for the amplitude and position within the measured range were 5 mV/MPa and 2.5 µs/MPa, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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802 KiB  
Article
Novel Real-Time Temperature Diagnosis of Conventional Hot-Embossing Process Using an Ultrasonic Transducer
by Chin-Chi Cheng, Sen-Yeu Yang and Dasheng Lee
Sensors 2014, 14(10), 19493-19506; https://doi.org/10.3390/s141019493 - 17 Oct 2014
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6110
Abstract
This paper presents an integrated high temperature ultrasonic transducer (HTUT) on a sensor insert and its application for real-time diagnostics of the conventional hot embossing process to fabricate V-cut patterns. The sensor was directly deposited onto the sensor insert of the hot embossing [...] Read more.
This paper presents an integrated high temperature ultrasonic transducer (HTUT) on a sensor insert and its application for real-time diagnostics of the conventional hot embossing process to fabricate V-cut patterns. The sensor was directly deposited onto the sensor insert of the hot embossing mold by using a sol-gel spray technique. It could operate at temperatures higher than 400 °C and uses an ultrasonic pulse-echo technique. The ultrasonic velocity could indicate the three statuses of the hot embossing process and also evaluate the replication of V-cut patterns on a plastic plate under various processing conditions. The progression of the process, including mold closure, plastic plate softening, cooling and plate detachment inside the mold, was clearly observed using ultrasound. For an ultrasonic velocity range from 2197.4 to 2435.9 m/s, the height of the V-cut pattern decreased from 23.0 to 3.2 µm linearly, with a ratio of −0.078 µm/(m/s). The incompleteness of the replication of the V-cut patterns could be indirectly observed by the ultrasonic signals. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of the ultrasonic sensors and technology for diagnosing the replicating condition of microstructures during the conventional hot embossing process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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990 KiB  
Article
A Thermally Annealed Mach-Zehnder Interferometer for High Temperature Measurement
by Zhongyao Feng, Jiacheng Li, Xueguang Qiao, Ling Li, Hangzhou Yang and Manli Hu
Sensors 2014, 14(8), 14210-14221; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140814210 - 04 Aug 2014
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5711
Abstract
An in-fiber Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) for high temperature measurement is proposed and experimentally demonstrated. The device is constructed of a piece of thin-core fiber (TCF) sandwiched between two short sections of multimode fiber (MMF), i.e., a MMF-TCF-MMF structure. A well-defined interference spectrum [...] Read more.
An in-fiber Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) for high temperature measurement is proposed and experimentally demonstrated. The device is constructed of a piece of thin-core fiber (TCF) sandwiched between two short sections of multimode fiber (MMF), i.e., a MMF-TCF-MMF structure. A well-defined interference spectrum is obtained owing to the core-mismatch, and the interference dips are sensitive to the ambient temperature. The experimental results show that the proposed interferometer is capable of high temperature measurement up to 875 °C with a sensitivity of 92 pm/°C over repeated measurements. The explored wavelength drop point may limit the measurement range, which can be improved by repeated thermal annealing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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1219 KiB  
Article
An Aligned-Gap and Centered-Gap Rectangular Multiple Split Ring Resonator for Dielectric Sensing Applications
by Izyani Mat Rusni, Alyani Ismail, Adam Reda Hasan Alhawari, Mohd Nizar Hamidon and Nor Azah Yusof
Sensors 2014, 14(7), 13134-13148; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140713134 - 21 Jul 2014
Cited by 79 | Viewed by 8634
Abstract
This paper presents the design and development of a planar Aligned-Gap and Centered-Gap Rectangular Multiple Split Ring Resonator (SRR) for microwave sensors that operates at a resonance frequency around 5 GHz. The sensor consists of a microstrip transmission line loaded with two elements [...] Read more.
This paper presents the design and development of a planar Aligned-Gap and Centered-Gap Rectangular Multiple Split Ring Resonator (SRR) for microwave sensors that operates at a resonance frequency around 5 GHz. The sensor consists of a microstrip transmission line loaded with two elements of rectangular SRR on both sides. The proposed metamaterial sensors were designed and fabricated on Rogers RT5880 substrate having dielectric constant of 2.2 and thickness of 0.787 mm. The final dimension of the proposed sensor was measured at 35 × 14 mm2. Measured results show good agreement with simulated ones as well as exhibiting high Q-factor for use in sensing application. A remarkably shift of resonance frequency is observed upon introduction of several sample with different dielectric value. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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5752 KiB  
Article
A Self-Referencing Intensity-Based Fiber Optic Sensor with Multipoint Sensing Characteristics
by Sang-Jin Choi, Young-Chon Kim, Minho Song and Jae-Kyung Pan
Sensors 2014, 14(7), 12803-12815; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140712803 - 18 Jul 2014
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5656
Abstract
A self-referencing, intensity-based fiber optic sensor (FOS) is proposed and demonstrated. The theoretical analysis for the proposed design is given, and the validity of the theoretical analysis is confirmed via experiments. We define the measurement parameter, X, and the calibration factor, β, [...] Read more.
A self-referencing, intensity-based fiber optic sensor (FOS) is proposed and demonstrated. The theoretical analysis for the proposed design is given, and the validity of the theoretical analysis is confirmed via experiments. We define the measurement parameter, X, and the calibration factor, β, to find the transfer function, , of the intensity-based FOS head. The self-referencing and multipoint sensing characteristics of the proposed system are validated by showing the measured and relative error versus the optical power attenuation of the sensor head for four cases: optical source fluctuation, various remote sensing point distances, fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) with different characteristics, and multiple sensor heads with cascade and/or parallel forms. The power-budget analysis and limitations of the measurement rates are discussed, and the measurement results of fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) coupon strain using the proposed FOS are given as an actual measurement. The proposed FOS has several benefits, including a self-referencing characteristic, the flexibility to determine FBGs, and a simple structure in terms of the number of devices and measuring procedure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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1869 KiB  
Article
A Solitary Wave-Based Sensor to Monitor the Setting of Fresh Concrete
by Piervincenzo Rizzo, Xianglei Ni, Somayeh Nassiri and Julie Vandenbossche
Sensors 2014, 14(7), 12568-12584; https://doi.org/10.3390/s140712568 - 14 Jul 2014
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 6025
Abstract
We present a proof-of-principle study about the use of a sensor for the nondestructive monitoring of strength development in hydrating concrete. The nondestructive evaluation technique is based on the propagation of highly nonlinear solitary waves (HNSWs), which are non-dispersive mechanical waves that can [...] Read more.
We present a proof-of-principle study about the use of a sensor for the nondestructive monitoring of strength development in hydrating concrete. The nondestructive evaluation technique is based on the propagation of highly nonlinear solitary waves (HNSWs), which are non-dispersive mechanical waves that can form and travel in highly nonlinear systems, such as one-dimensional particle chains. A built-in transducer is adopted to excite and detect the HNSWs. The waves are partially reflected at the transducer/concrete interface and partially transmitted into the concrete. The time-of-flight and the amplitude of the waves reflected at the interface are measured and analyzed with respect to the hydration time, and correlated to the initial and final set times established by the penetration test (ASTM C 403). The results show that certain features of the HNSWs change as the concrete curing progresses indicating that it has the potential of being an efficient, cost-effective tool for monitoring strengths/stiffness development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Sensors for Non-Destructive Testing and Structural Health Monitoring)
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