Geosciences

21 pages, 8026 KB

Open AccessArticle

How to Select Areas for Natural H₂ Exploration? A Case Study in Western Colombia

by Isabelle Moretti, Mathis Diroff, Fabien Cubizolle, Alejandra Carrillo-Ramirez and Sebastien Lacaze

Geosciences 2026, 16(9), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16090345 - 24 Aug 2026

Abstract

Although uncertainties regarding natural hydrogen (H₂) reserves remain high, exploration activity is expanding across several countries. To date, the only active production site uses this resource locally for electricity generation; however, operating companies could target industrial markets where H₂ can [...] Read more.

Although uncertainties regarding natural hydrogen (H₂) reserves remain high, exploration activity is expanding across several countries. To date, the only active production site uses this resource locally for electricity generation; however, operating companies could target industrial markets where H₂ can serve as both an energy source and a chemical feedstock. Surface constraints and proximity to commercial markets will dictate distribution and utilization strategies when alternative options are available. This study introduces a novel tool that integrates surface and subsurface constraints to rank prospective exploration areas, enabling companies to identify opportunities aligned with their specific corporate profiles or business plans. The methodology is applied to western Colombia, a region characterized by many surface constraints and known H₂-generating source rocks; H₂ surface emanations have also been documented. Western Colombia is structurally divided by north–south mountain ranges (Cordilleras) that severely hinder east–west transportation and contribute to regional energy insecurity. Using a comprehensive data compilation, this study demonstrates how applying different weighting schemes to diverse geographical and geological parameters can optimize site selection. The Medellín area ranks highest if the target is the industrial market. Full article

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39 pages, 9549 KB

Open AccessArticle

Landslide Risk Assessment and Susceptibility Analysis in the Loess Plateau Region: A Case Study of Yuzhong County, Lanzhou City, Western China

by Zhen Wu, Manzhong Qin and Yuansheng Zhang

Geosciences 2026, 16(9), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16090344 - 23 Aug 2026

Abstract

The Loess Plateau in China is highly susceptible to frequent landslides and other geological disasters, which have led to substantial losses of natural and human resources and are frequently reported in the news media. Yuzhong County, located east of Lanzhou City, is a [...] Read more.

The Loess Plateau in China is highly susceptible to frequent landslides and other geological disasters, which have led to substantial losses of natural and human resources and are frequently reported in the news media. Yuzhong County, located east of Lanzhou City, is a mountainous region with considerable development potential. On 7 August 2025, this area experienced a large-scale geological disaster characterized by a compound event involving both landslides and debris flows, resulting in nearly several hundred casualties. With the ongoing urban expansion of Yuzhong County in recent years, the prediction and prevention of geological disasters have become increasingly critical. This study employed three machine learning algorithms—Multiple Logistic Regression (LR), Random Forest (RF), and XGBoost (XG)—to assess landslide susceptibility in Yuzhong County. A total of 169 historical landslide points, supplemented by additional sites identified through field investigations, were compiled, along with 200 non-landslide locations. Multiple environmental factors were incorporated into the models to analyze landslide susceptibility across different areas. Because LR can effectively capture the generalized influence of precipitation variability, it was selected as the primary model for the final susceptibility mapping. To more accurately evaluate the impact of precipitation on landslide occurrence, average seasonal precipitation across the four seasons was used as a predictive factor. To refine the risk assessment at the township level, both raster-based and landslide-unit-based evaluation approaches were adopted. Overlay analyses were then performed by integrating urban infrastructure, population distribution, and predicted landslide hazard zones, while also accounting for the potential influence of extreme precipitation events. The results reveal that the mountainous areas in eastern Mapo Township, southern Xiaokangying Township, southern Xiaguanying Town, and the south-central part of Qingshuiyi Township are high-risk zones prone to group-occurrence landslide disasters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Landslide Susceptibility Mapping, Hazard Assessment and Risk Evaluation)

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16 pages, 16593 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Source Data and Integrated Gravity for Crustal Stability Analysis in the Eastern Tibetan Plateau

by Sen Kong, Jie Liu, Zhiru Geng, Shouchun Wei, Chunyi Li and Jiehai Cheng

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080343 - 21 Aug 2026

Abstract

As a key tectonic zone formed by the India–Eurasia collision, the eastern Tibetan Plateau has complex crustal structures and intense tectonic activity. Its crustal stability is closely linked to regional geohazards and the safety of major engineering projects. This study assessed crustal stability [...] Read more.

As a key tectonic zone formed by the India–Eurasia collision, the eastern Tibetan Plateau has complex crustal structures and intense tectonic activity. Its crustal stability is closely linked to regional geohazards and the safety of major engineering projects. This study assessed crustal stability using nine multi-source datasets, including terrestrial gravity, Bouguer gravity anomalies, seismic data, active faults, terrain indicators, and annual precipitation. A hybrid weighting framework coupling the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and CRITIC method was established, and factor analysis was further adopted to cross-verify the rationality of index weights. Moderately unstable and unstable zones appear as alternating bands with distinct linear extensions. These unstable areas are mainly distributed around Jiuquan–Zhangye–Wuwei, Xining–Haidong, Yushu–Garzê, Mianyang, and Chengdu. Statistically, stable, moderately stable, moderately unstable, and unstable zones account for 20.74%, 35.47%, 28.78%, and 15.01%, respectively. The results provide a scientific reference for regional planning and infrastructure site selection in tectonically active regions. Full article

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24 pages, 39134 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sedimentary Fabric and Diagenetic-Fluid Controls on Pore-Structure Heterogeneity in the Deep Cretaceous Yageliemu Formation, Kuqa Depression, Tarim Basin, NW China

by Lu Zhou, Xinyu Sun, Minggang Tang, Hong Lou, Jian Wang, Zhenhan Zhang, Jinfeng Feng and Haihua Qiu

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080342 - 20 Aug 2026

Abstract

Deep Cretaceous clastic reservoirs in the Kuqa Depression are major targets for natural gas exploration in the Tarim Basin. Recent exploration of the Yageliemu Formation in the Ketan area has revealed considerable resource potential, although reservoir performance is strongly affected by deep burial, [...] Read more.

Deep Cretaceous clastic reservoirs in the Kuqa Depression are major targets for natural gas exploration in the Tarim Basin. Recent exploration of the Yageliemu Formation in the Ketan area has revealed considerable resource potential, although reservoir performance is strongly affected by deep burial, compaction, repeated fluid–rock interaction, and pronounced pore-system heterogeneity. Core descriptions, epoxy-impregnated thin sections, cathodoluminescence, scanning electron microscopy, conventional petrophysical measurements, mercury intrusion capillary pressure, and nuclear magnetic resonance data were integrated to evaluate sedimentary fabric, reservoir-space types, pore-throat characteristics, and diagenetic modification. The succession was deposited mainly in a braided river delta plain setting and is dominated by medium sandstone, pebbly sandstone, and fine conglomerate. Overall reservoir quality is poor, with an average porosity of 3.4% and permeability commonly between 0.01 and 0.5 mD. MICP and NMR data distinguish four pore-structure types. From Type I to Type IV, average displacement pressure rises from 0.89 to 11.02 MPa, whereas median throat radius and movable-fluid porosity decline from 0.17 to 0.01 μm and from 2.00% to 0.72%, respectively. Residual intergranular pores constitute the main storage space, while feldspar- and lithic-fragment-dissolution pores provide additional local storage. Fractures contribute little pore volume but can markedly improve connectivity where they remain open or only weakly cemented. The present reservoir heterogeneity reflects the combined effects of sand-body stacking, sandstone–mudstone arrangement, fault-related fracturing, and multistage diagenesis. The most favorable intervals occur in thick, relatively clean stacked sand bodies where residual pores are preserved, dissolution pores remain connected to the throat network, and fractures have undergone limited late-stage filling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fault Characteristics, Fault Zone Architecture and Fluid Behavior)

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16 pages, 2654 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Physics-Based Approach to Rock Bolt Detection and Spatial Monitoring

by Munkhtsolmon Munkhchuluun and Davide Elmo

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080341 - 20 Aug 2026

Abstract

Rock bolts are the primary ground support mechanism in underground mining. Yet verification of their installation is rarely captured in a spatially precise, retrievable form, leaving operators without an auditable as-built record for regulatory review or post-incident reconstruction. This paper presents an automated [...] Read more.

Rock bolts are the primary ground support mechanism in underground mining. Yet verification of their installation is rarely captured in a spatially precise, retrievable form, leaving operators without an auditable as-built record for regulatory review or post-incident reconstruction. This paper presents an automated rock bolt detection process that closes this documentation gap using dense point clouds from an underground hard rock mine acquired by terrestrial laser scan. The method computes per-point ambient occlusion (AO) on closure plane-sealed chambers using a PCV implementation of the ShadeVIS principle, forms candidates from a multi-scale protrusion field, and segments them by prominence watershed before classifying each candidate with PCA-based geometric descriptors, without machine learning or training data. Installation perpendicularity is applied as a per-detection confidence cue, and detections are reported in confidence tiers that concentrate human review on the ambiguous minority. Validated against a database of 1447 bolts across 20 walls in two areas of an underground mine, the system achieved an overall recall of 83.7%, with human review completing the inventory to 100%. The physics-based design transfers across bolt types and mine geometries through parameter re-tuning rather than retraining, addressing the core limitation of deep learning methods, which require site-specific labelled datasets. Full article

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15 pages, 11310 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Cyclic Confining Pressure and Temperature on Static and Dynamic Bulk Compressibility of Reservoir Sandstones

by Yuxiang Wang, Yang Wang, Junxing Ren, Xuguang Dong and Xiaoyang Wang

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080340 - 19 Aug 2026

Abstract

Bulk compressibility of reservoir rocks can be characterized dynamically or statically, and both vary with burial depth due to increasing temperature and pressure. To quantify these effects, cyclic hydrostatic compression tests are conducted on two reservoir sandstones under confining pressure up to 50 [...] Read more.

Bulk compressibility of reservoir rocks can be characterized dynamically or statically, and both vary with burial depth due to increasing temperature and pressure. To quantify these effects, cyclic hydrostatic compression tests are conducted on two reservoir sandstones under confining pressure up to 50 MPa at three temperatures (30 °C, 70 °C, and 110 °C). Experimental results show that static bulk compressibility is consistently larger than dynamic values across all tested conditions. As confining pressure increases, static compressibility decreases more sharply than dynamic compressibility, leading to a gradual reduction in their discrepancy. In contrast, temperature exerts a weaker yet more complex influence. Elevated temperature increases dynamic bulk compressibility, but has opposite effects on static compressibility upon loading versus unloading: it reduces static compressibility upon hydrostatic loading but enhances it upon unloading. This complex temperature dependence is attributed to thermally induced stress, which resists hydrostatic compression during loading but assists decompression during unloading. The influence of thermal stress is more pronounced at low confining pressures. These findings highlight that temperature not only alters the magnitude of static compressibility but also introduces path-dependent asymmetry between loading and unloading, which has important implications for reservoir geomechanics, subsidence prediction, and production-induced compaction in high-temperature environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Experimental Methods, Advanced Field/in-Situ Testing, and Their Engineering Applications in Geomechanics)

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27 pages, 7942 KB

Open AccessReview

A Reproducible Review of Selected Analytical Methods in the Geosciences with R Implementations Using Simulated Data

by Khaled Haddad and Surendra Shrestha

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080339 - 18 Aug 2026

Abstract

The geosciences have witnessed a rapid expansion of analytical methods, from classical linear models to geostatistics and modern machine learning. However, no single resource compares a curated selection of these methods systematically while also providing reproducible code. This reproducibility-driven review evaluates seven analytical [...] Read more.

The geosciences have witnessed a rapid expansion of analytical methods, from classical linear models to geostatistics and modern machine learning. However, no single resource compares a curated selection of these methods systematically while also providing reproducible code. This reproducibility-driven review evaluates seven analytical techniques applied to three simulated geoscience datasets: spatial points, time series, and a spatio-temporal grid. Methods were selected based on their availability in R to ensure transparency and accessibility. This paper serves as a historical review, a comparative benchmarking study, and a practical teaching resource with fully reproducible R code. The methods include linear regression, ARIMAX, ordinary kriging, regression-kriging, random forest, feed-forward neural networks, and BART. For spatial prediction, when evaluated against the true field, linear regression achieved the lowest mean RMSE (1.94 ± 0.23), followed by random forest (2.13 ± 0.23) and ordinary kriging (2.20 ± 0.26)—highlighting the importance of consistent out-of-sample validation. Regression-kriging performed similarly to ordinary kriging (2.22 ± 0.26). For time series, a feed-forward neural network (0.37 ± 0.09) substantially outperformed seasonal ARIMAX (1.90 ± 1.30). For spatio-temporal prediction, random forest and BART performed indistinguishably (0.534 ± 0.004 vs. 0.543 ± 0.004). A practical decision guide, grounded in these empirical results, summarises method selection based on sample size, data type, and research goal—whether inference, prediction, or uncertainty quantification. All code is open and reproducible, providing a template for future method comparisons. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Instrumentation and Experimental Methods for Geosciences)

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18 pages, 17586 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Parameter Coupling of Seismic, Drilling and Logging Data for Fine Prediction of Cambrian Gypsum-Salt Sequences

by Yuanyin Zhang, Zhongkai Bai, Dayong Li and Xintao Wang

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080338 - 18 Aug 2026

Abstract

An accurate prediction of gypsum-salt cap rocks is crucial for safe drilling and efficient development of subsalt hydrocarbons in the Tarim Basin. However, due to the complex lithological assemblages within the Middle Cambrian sequences, the P-impedance of gypsum severely overlaps with that of [...] Read more.

An accurate prediction of gypsum-salt cap rocks is crucial for safe drilling and efficient development of subsalt hydrocarbons in the Tarim Basin. However, due to the complex lithological assemblages within the Middle Cambrian sequences, the P-impedance of gypsum severely overlaps with that of the background carbonate rocks, making conventional seismic prediction based on a single impedance threshold inadequate. To address this issue, this paper proposes a multi-parameter coupling while-drilling prediction method that integrates seismic data, drilling parameters and geochemical logging. First, pre-stack P-impedance inversion is performed on amplitude-preserved seismic data to macroscopically delineate the depth interval of gypsum-salt development. Second, a weighted synthetic change-rate model incorporating drilling time (DT), weight on bit (WOB), and outlet conductivity is constructed to dynamically calibrate the top interface of the gypsum-salt layer while drilling. Finally, within the constrained depth interval, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) elemental inversion of cuttings is used to quantitatively calculate the contents of clay, dolomite, gypsum and calcite, achieving fine-scale lithofacies identification at the sublayer level. An empirical application to Well XSC1 in the Keping fault-uplift, Tarim Basin, demonstrates that compared with the conventional single P-impedance threshold method, the proposed approach effectively distinguishes gypsum, salt and carbonate wall rocks, and significantly reduces the prediction errors of individual salt beds and gypsum sublayers. Specifically, the mean absolute error (MAE) of total gypsum-salt content decreases from 24.56% to 13.73% (a reduction of 44.1%), the bias drops from 2.45% to 0.31%, and the root mean square error (RMSE) decreases from 33.63% to 21.55%. At a 1% content threshold, the F1 score for gypsum-salt identification increases from 0.63 to 0.82; the absolute depth error of the top and bottom interfaces is reduced by approximately 70%, and the relative thickness error shrinks from

\pm

40% to within

\pm

10%. Transferability of this multi-parameter coupling strategy to other salt-bearing basins in central-western China remains unvalidated and requires future validation and testing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Oil and Gas Exploration, Resources, and Production in China)

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19 pages, 5371 KB

Open AccessArticle

Global Research Trends on Coastal Dunes: Implications for a Semi-Arid Coast in Northeastern Brazil

by Raquel Arcoverde Vila Nova, Rodrigo Mikosz Gonçalves, Susana Costas, Filipe Galiforni-Silva, Leandro Ponsoni and Paulo Henrique Gomes de Oliveira Sousa

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080337 - 18 Aug 2026

Abstract

This study aimed to evaluate and quantify the environmental impacts generated by anthropogenic actions on coastal dunes globally using bibliometric data, while concurrently identifying human impacts in a local context on the Brazilian semi-arid coast. A systematic review identified 897 relevant publications from [...] Read more.

This study aimed to evaluate and quantify the environmental impacts generated by anthropogenic actions on coastal dunes globally using bibliometric data, while concurrently identifying human impacts in a local context on the Brazilian semi-arid coast. A systematic review identified 897 relevant publications from a final sample of 1838 works, revealing an increasing trend in global research, peaking in 2018. Geographically, the United States (141), Italy (95), and Spain (79) lead the field, with Brazil contributing 46 publications. The global overview highlights urbanization (217 studies) and tourism (193 studies) as the most frequent impact factors, contrasting with common mitigation measures like dune stabilization with vegetation (112 studies) and beach nourishment (74 studies). Critically, 11 studies reported that management actions, particularly stabilization without considering native flora, led to problems with invasive plants. A significant research gap was identified due to the absence of literature on wind farms, typically located in transgressive dune systems. The local case study in Ceará state confirms dynamics consistent with global trends, where intense exploitation results in management failures; quantitative temporal analysis (2015–2023) demonstrated a dramatic 86.76% loss of dune area in Fortim and a 4.24 km² loss in Jijoca de Jericoacoara. Findings suggest that, in the Ceará case study, restricting access, promoting community participation, and relocating infrastructure to more appropriate areas may help mitigate human impacts. In addition to identifying potential research gaps, this integration of global and local analysis approaches can contribute to evidence-based coastal dune management adapted to local conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aeolian Systems: Processes, Landforms, and Impacts on Climate and Environment)

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7 pages, 1504 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Review of the Electrical Conductivity Inside Mars Calculated Beneath the InSight Landing Site

by Victor Corchete

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080336 - 15 Aug 2026

Abstract

The first electrical conductivity model determined beneath the InSight landing site is revisited in this study by performing a careful selection of magnetic records from the IFG dataset. This conductivity model is recalculated for the crust and the uppermost mantle (0–182 km depth), [...] Read more.

The first electrical conductivity model determined beneath the InSight landing site is revisited in this study by performing a careful selection of magnetic records from the IFG dataset. This conductivity model is recalculated for the crust and the uppermost mantle (0–182 km depth), considering the data provided by this careful selection. In general, the present model shows a good agreement with synthetic models and other models calculated from magnetic data. In the present model, the conductivity of the crust is 0.0007 S/m, and the conductivity for the uppermost mantle coincides with that determined in the former paper. The crustal conductivity has been calculated for the first time beneath the InSight landing site. Better knowledge can be achieved when more accurate magnetic data are available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Planetary Science and Astrobiology)

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20 pages, 18131 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Mural Painting on Mud Plaster: “Los Escudos” from Tehuacán–Ndachjian

by Mayahuel Ortega-Avilés, Dolores Tenorio-Castilleros, Noemi Castillo-Tejero and José G. Miranda-Hernández

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080335 - 15 Aug 2026

Abstract

The “Los Escudos” mural at the Late Postclassic site known as Tehuacán–Ndachjian in Puebla, Mexico, is relatively unknown within Mexico due to there being limited access to the site, which is situated underground on a mountain. This study describes the first unique opportunity [...] Read more.

The “Los Escudos” mural at the Late Postclassic site known as Tehuacán–Ndachjian in Puebla, Mexico, is relatively unknown within Mexico due to there being limited access to the site, which is situated underground on a mountain. This study describes the first unique opportunity to analyse mural painting samples on mud plaster from this archaeological site. Small, pigmented samples were analysed using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. The compositional and structural characterisation of the samples revealed a stratigraphic composition without a lime plaster layer in addition to the presence of minerals, such as hematite, goethite, palygorskite, gypsum, and feldspars. These findings support the conclusion that the “tempera on earth” pictorial technique with mineral pigments was used to create the mural. The overall results provide valuable data concerning the types of materials and techniques that were used and serve as a reference for conservators in addressing preservation, conservation, and restoration issues for mural paintings on mud plaster. Furthermore, the study enhances understanding of ancient painting techniques on mud plaster and the technological advances that were developed by pre-Hispanic cultures in Mexico. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geoheritage, Geoparks and Geotourism)

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21 pages, 52035 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multiple Linkage Patterns of Border Faults and the Main Controlling Factors in the Zhu I Depression of the Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea

by Wei Tian, Lianfu Mei, Hesheng Shi, Yu Shu, Hailun Liu, Baomin Zhang and Le Zhu

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080334 - 14 Aug 2026

Abstract

The Pearl River Mouth Basin (PRMB) is a significant offshore petroleum basin located in the northern South China Sea, characterized by its complex structural features and well-developed boundary faults. Despite its importance, several critical questions regarding fault growth, evolution models, and genesis mechanisms [...] Read more.

The Pearl River Mouth Basin (PRMB) is a significant offshore petroleum basin located in the northern South China Sea, characterized by its complex structural features and well-developed boundary faults. Despite its importance, several critical questions regarding fault growth, evolution models, and genesis mechanisms remain unresolved. This study aims to address these gaps by discussing the evolution of the boundary fault system and its associated stratigraphic record. This study utilizes high-resolution 3D seismic reflection data interpretation and fault displacement profiles to investigate the Zhu I depression, the largest hydrocarbon-bearing depression in the northern rifted zone of the PRMB. The findings indicate that the syn-rift growth of boundary faults within the Zhu I depression exhibits three distinct patterns, along-strike linkage, transverse linkage, and oblique linkage, which are formed under the action of the pre-existing basement fault systems. These patterns describe how individual fault segments connect and evolve during the rifting process, influencing the overall structural development of the basin and hydrocarbon accumulation. Although transverse linkage includes three development stages, consistent with previous studies, these stages are isolated normal faults, overlapping faults, and hard linkage. The study reveals a unique example of how transfer faults within a relay ramp connect the normal boundary faults on both sides. The break progression of the relay ramp can also be classified into three stages, similar to the transverse linkage. This study proposes a new approach, through the inversion of fault evolution by sequence migration, for the reconstruction of fault connection processes and complex fault linkage models developed in southern China and similar areas worldwide. Full article

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32 pages, 11806 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of the Tsunamis in Naples Bay (Southern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy) Within a General Framework of Mediterranean Tsunamis

by Gemma Aiello

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080333 - 14 Aug 2026

Abstract

Tsunami hazards in the Bay of Naples are primarily driven by submarine landslides, intense seismic activity, and volcanic phenomena from nearby systems like Vesuvius and the Campi Flegrei caldera. While localized historical tsunamis have occurred, they are generally rare events. Key tsunami sources [...] Read more.

Tsunami hazards in the Bay of Naples are primarily driven by submarine landslides, intense seismic activity, and volcanic phenomena from nearby systems like Vesuvius and the Campi Flegrei caldera. While localized historical tsunamis have occurred, they are generally rare events. Key tsunami sources include submarine landslides, volcanic eruptions, and seismicity. In this paper we provide a review of the tsunamis in Naples Bay within a general framework of Mediterranean tsunamis based on a literature review. Underwater avalanches, particularly around the steep slopes of the Dohrn Canyon and Ischia, are considered a primary localized threat. Scientific models indicate that a major collapse (like past events like the Ischia debris avalanche) could generate significant waves that could cross the bay in minutes. Explosive eruptions where magma meets seawater (such as PDCs—pyroclastic density currents) can displace water violently. This was famously documented during the AD 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which created submarine ash fans and tsunami waves in the gulf. Earthquakes related to bradyseism in the Campi Flegrei or regional faults can also trigger sea level oscillations or localized tidal waves. Among the historical modeled events, we focus on the A.D. 79 eruption and on the 1343 Naples tsunami. The numerical simulations are revised. Depending on the source, the modeled waves vary from minor oscillations to heights of up to 6 m in canyon areas or over 20 m in nearby islands like Ischia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Natural Hazards)

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28 pages, 16131 KB

Open AccessArticle

Revisiting the Pangjiahe Au Deposit, West Qinling Orogen, Central China: New In Situ Sericite and Apatite Geochronology, Fe-S Isotope Constraints, and Implications for Regional Metallogeny

by Fei Teng, Guoying Li, Jianjun Jia, Yuanhe Tang, Wendi Guo, Leon Bagas, Shuai Yang, Xiao Li, Fei Bian, Yongbao Gao and Liyong Wei

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080332 - 13 Aug 2026

Abstract

The Pangjiahe Au deposit is the largest gold deposit in the Fengxian district of the West Qinling Orogen (WQO), Central China. However, the timing of gold mineralisation and its relationship to the regional metallogenic evolution of the WQO remain poorly constrained. In this [...] Read more.

The Pangjiahe Au deposit is the largest gold deposit in the Fengxian district of the West Qinling Orogen (WQO), Central China. However, the timing of gold mineralisation and its relationship to the regional metallogenic evolution of the WQO remain poorly constrained. In this study, detailed geological investigations, TIMA mineralogical analysis, in situ Rb–Sr dating of hydrothermal sericite, and in situ Fe–S isotope analyses of auriferous pyrite were conducted to constrain the timing of mineralisation, the evolution of ore-forming components, and the regional metallogenic significance of the Pangjiahe Au deposit. Hydrothermal sericite intimately associated with gold mineralisation yields an in situ Rb–Sr isochron age of 207.6 ± 3.1 Ma, providing the first direct age constraint on gold mineralisation at Pangjiahe. This age is consistent with those reported for the nearby Huayagou Au deposit and several other major gold deposits in the West Qinling Orogen, supporting a regionally extensive Late Triassic gold mineralisation event. The Pangjiahe Au deposit shares closer geological, geochronological, and isotopic affinities with the Huayagou Au deposit and the major Au deposits of the Middle Qinling in Gansu than with the traditionally correlated Au deposits of the North Qinling. These results provide new constraints on the regional metallogenic relationship between the Fengtai Basin and the Middle Qinling metallogenic system, contributing to a better understanding of Late Triassic gold mineralisation in the West Qinling Orogen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Isotope Geochemistry: New Techniques and Applications)

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19 pages, 12853 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pre-Paleocene Kohistan–Karakoram Amalgamation: Evidence from the Detrital Zircon Provenance of the Baraul Banda Formation, Pakistan

by Muhammad Qasim

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 331; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080331 - 13 Aug 2026

Abstract

The Baraul Banda Formation preserves an important Paleocene–Eocene sedimentary record within the western Kohistan–Ladakh Arc (KLA) and provides new constraints on sediment provenance and tectonic evolution during the final stages of Neo-Tethyan closure. This study integrates stratigraphic observations, detrital zircon U-Pb geochronology, and [...] Read more.

The Baraul Banda Formation preserves an important Paleocene–Eocene sedimentary record within the western Kohistan–Ladakh Arc (KLA) and provides new constraints on sediment provenance and tectonic evolution during the final stages of Neo-Tethyan closure. This study integrates stratigraphic observations, detrital zircon U-Pb geochronology, and quantitative provenance analyses to investigate sediment sources and basin development within the western India–Eurasia collision zone. The formation comprises a thick marine siliciclastic succession of conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, and slate deposited in a tectonically active forearc basin. Detrital zircon age spectra are dominated by Mesozoic–Cenozoic populations (48%) with major peaks at ~57–61 Ma, ~70 Ma, ~85–90 Ma, and ~114–115 Ma, accompanied by subordinate Neoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic, Paleoproterozoic, and minor Archean populations. These age components closely resemble those of the KLA, Karakoram Block, and Lhasa Block. Statistical provenance analyses indicate the strongest affinity with Eurasian arc-related terranes and contemporaneous forearc basin deposits of the Tar and Indus groups, whereas affinity with Indian Plate sources is minor. The provenance record indicates that sediment supply was dominated by erosion of the KLA and the adjacent Karakoram–Lhasa continental margin, with only minor recycled contributions from Indian-derived sources. The youngest zircon populations constrain deposition to the Paleocene–Early Eocene and record rapid erosion of active arc terranes immediately prior to the India–KLA collision. Placed within the regional magmatic chronology, these results support initiation of the KLA by ca. 155 Ma, Late Cretaceous amalgamation with the Karakoram–Lhasa margin at ca. 80–70 Ma, and subsequent collision with India at ca. 60–55 Ma. The KLA therefore remained an active pre-India-collision arc system for approximately 95–100 Myr, whereas collision-related magmatism continued until ca. 40 Ma, extending its complete magmatic history to approximately 115 Myr. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Detrital Minerals Geochronology and Sedimentary Provenance)

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21 pages, 2956 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation and Numerical Simulation on the Strength and Deformation Characteristics of Granular Materials at Various Elevations of Dump Slope

by Jian Meng, Jiawen Liu, Kegang Li, Tianlong Zhou and Han Zhou

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080330 - 13 Aug 2026

Abstract

Determining the shear strength parameters of granular materials in high waste rock dump slopes is essential for reliable slope stability analysis. In this study, dump materials were sampled from six benches (elevations 2800–2950 m) of an open-pit mine dump slope, and in situ [...] Read more.

Determining the shear strength parameters of granular materials in high waste rock dump slopes is essential for reliable slope stability analysis. In this study, dump materials were sampled from six benches (elevations 2800–2950 m) of an open-pit mine dump slope, and in situ density tests, gradation analyses, and large-scale consolidated drained (CD) triaxial tests were performed. Two PFC2D slope models—one with uniform (spatially averaged) parameters and one with elevation-dependent (layered) parameters—were then established to quantify how spatial heterogeneity affects stability predictions. The results show pronounced vertical heterogeneity: density, porosity, gradation, and shear strength parameters vary systematically among benches, reflecting the combined effects of compaction history and particle segregation during dumping. All specimens exhibited strain hardening and continuous shear contraction, and specimens with a denser, better-graded structure showed higher strength and lower compressibility. The layered model yields a higher factor of safety and shallower, bench-scale slip surfaces, whereas the uniform model underestimates stability and misplaces the critical slip zones. These findings demonstrate that elevation-dependent parameter assignment better represents the heterogeneous failure mechanism of high dump slopes and should be preferred over uniform parameterization in stability analyses of similar waste rock dumps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Geomechanics)

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21 pages, 9671 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of Stress Zonation in the Bashijiqike Formation and Control Factors on Reservoir Development (Kelasu Structural Belt, Kuqa Depression, North-Western China)

by Lu Zhou, Xinru Zheng, Hong Lou, Minggang Tang, Jian Wang, Fangjie Hu, Xiaolong Sun and Haihua Qiu

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080329 - 12 Aug 2026

Abstract

The deep to ultra-deep sandstone reservoirs of the Cretaceous Bashijiqike Formation in the Kelasu structural belt of the Kuqa Depression exhibit strong heterogeneity. This study integrates single-well stress calculation, image log fracture interpretation, thin-section petrographic analysis, and porosity–permeability testing to compare stress, fracture, [...] Read more.

The deep to ultra-deep sandstone reservoirs of the Cretaceous Bashijiqike Formation in the Kelasu structural belt of the Kuqa Depression exhibit strong heterogeneity. This study integrates single-well stress calculation, image log fracture interpretation, thin-section petrographic analysis, and porosity–permeability testing to compare stress, fracture, and reservoir characteristics across the Dabei–Bozi cross-section. The results show that the northern stress release zone is characterized by low S_H (98 to 148 MPa) and E (9220 to 23,420 MPa), indicating weak cumulative stress, low effective fracture density (0.09 fractures/m), and primary-pore dominated reservoirs. The central stress transition zone has progressively increasing S_H (136 to 187 MPa) and E (27,450 to 33,210 MPa) from north to south, indicating strong cumulative stress, high effective fracture density (0.31 fractures/m), and mixed primary–secondary pore-fracture reservoirs. The southern stress accumulation zone shows increasing S_H but decreasing E to the south, indicating that the late-stage high stress results in low effective fracture density (0.08 fractures/m) and preserving primary pores. These results demonstrate that reservoir quality is governed by the cumulative effect of the stress field, rather than by present-day stress or peak paleo-stress alone. This reservoir distribution model could provide a theoretical basis for reservoir prediction in the foreland basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sedimentary Basins and Energy Resources)

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19 pages, 24373 KB

Open AccessReview

Rhizoliths and the Recognition of Plant and Microbial Trace Fossils

by Spencer G. Lucas

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080328 - 11 Aug 2026

Abstract

Recognizing a trace fossil as a record of organism–substrate interaction is well agreed upon, but some organisms and some interactions are not considered by some workers to be tracemakers or to have produced trace fossils. This is particularly the case with sedimentary structures [...] Read more.

Recognizing a trace fossil as a record of organism–substrate interaction is well agreed upon, but some organisms and some interactions are not considered by some workers to be tracemakers or to have produced trace fossils. This is particularly the case with sedimentary structures created or modified by plants and micro-organisms. Plant-made structures that some workers have identified as trace fossils are phytoliths, leaf galls, borings/corrosion structures and rhizoliths. Only borings/corrosion structures and rhizoliths are generally agreed to be trace fossils. Phytoliths are not trace fossils, and most workers do not consider leaf galls to be traces, though that conclusion is open to question. Microbialites (both stromatolites and microbially induced sedimentary structures [MISS]) are not generally regarded as trace fossils, but identification of them as trace fossils has increased recently. The ichnotaxonomy of trace fossils made by plants and MISS needs to be regulated by the Botanical and Prokaryote Codes of Nomenclature. The specific recognition of ichnofossils and the procedures for their ichnotaxonomy need to be spelled out in those codes, much as they have been for animal trace fossils in the Zoological Code. Studies of modern roots and of rhizoliths provide a robust ichnotaxobase for their ichnotaxonomy, including shape, surface texture, internal structures, size, branching, orientation and substrate. Using that ichnotaxobase, a new ichnotaxon, Syrinxichnus tanneri igen. nov and isp. nov., is proposed for some Triassic rhizoliths. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rhizoliths in Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction)

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32 pages, 45594 KB

Open AccessArticle

Landslide Susceptibility Assessment Using a Machine Learning Model with VAE-CDM Sample Augmentation: A Case Study of Southeastern Xizang

by Kangkang Li, Huan Yu, Han Wang, Shirong Hu, Jianan Li, Chengjiang Deng and Yunfeng Gao

Geosciences 2026, 16(8), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences16080327 - 11 Aug 2026

Abstract

Landslide susceptibility mapping in alpine regions with limited data has two persistent obstacles: too few recorded landslide cases and the questionable reliability of non-landslide samples. We address these issues with a hybrid generative framework—a Variational Autoencoder (VAE) performs latent-space interpolation to produce additional [...] Read more.

Landslide susceptibility mapping in alpine regions with limited data has two persistent obstacles: too few recorded landslide cases and the questionable reliability of non-landslide samples. We address these issues with a hybrid generative framework—a Variational Autoencoder (VAE) performs latent-space interpolation to produce additional positive samples, while a Conditional Diffusion Model (CDM) generates counterfactual negative samples. To validate generation quality, we used Principal Component Analysis (PCA) scatterplots, convex hull containment analysis, and covariance structure checks. The generated samples were then evaluated across five classifiers (Logistic Regression (LR), Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machine (SVM), eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), and The Convolutional Neural Network-Transformer-Long Short-Term Memory-Graph Convolutional Network (CTLGNet)). VAE-CDM consistently outperformed the original dataset, Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique (SMOTE), and Conditional Tabular Generative Adversarial Network (CTGAN), with XGBoost achieving the best results—Area Under the Curve (AUC) of 0.9337, recall of 0.91, and F1 of 0.87. DeLong’s test confirmed the AUC gain was statistically significant (p = 0.043). After augmentation, the very-high-susceptibility capture rate rose from 68.5% to 89.4%, while cumulative capture curves reflected a 4.9% improvement in spatial targeting efficiency. Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) analysis highlighted distance to roads, elevation, and the Freeze-Thaw Index (FTI) as the dominant controlling factors. Application to Southeastern Xizang shows the framework offers a viable pathway for susceptibility mapping in data-limited environments, although the generated samples show moderate diversity reduction (0.53) due to the interpolation-based generation strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Solutions in Disaster Research)

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