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Sensors, Volume 15, Issue 6 (June 2015) – 135 articles , Pages 12103-14829

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1176 KiB  
Article
A Low Complexity System Based on Multiple Weighted Decision Trees for Indoor Localization
by David Sánchez-Rodríguez, Pablo Hernández-Morera, José Ma. Quinteiro and Itziar Alonso-González
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14809-14829; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614809 - 23 Jun 2015
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 6711
Abstract
Indoor position estimation has become an attractive research topic due to growing interest in location-aware services. Nevertheless, satisfying solutions have not been found with the considerations of both accuracy and system complexity. From the perspective of lightweight mobile devices, they are extremely important [...] Read more.
Indoor position estimation has become an attractive research topic due to growing interest in location-aware services. Nevertheless, satisfying solutions have not been found with the considerations of both accuracy and system complexity. From the perspective of lightweight mobile devices, they are extremely important characteristics, because both the processor power and energy availability are limited. Hence, an indoor localization system with high computational complexity can cause complete battery drain within a few hours. In our research, we use a data mining technique named boosting to develop a localization system based on multiple weighted decision trees to predict the device location, since it has high accuracy and low computational complexity. The localization system is built using a dataset from sensor fusion, which combines the strength of radio signals from different wireless local area network access points and device orientation information from a digital compass built-in mobile device, so that extra sensors are unnecessary. Experimental results indicate that the proposed system leads to substantial improvements on computational complexity over the widely-used traditional fingerprinting methods, and it has a better accuracy than they have. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Indoor Mapping and Navigation)
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1232 KiB  
Article
Design of a Thermoacoustic Sensor for Low Intensity Ultrasound Measurements Based on an Artificial Neural Network
by Jida Xing and Jie Chen
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14788-14808; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614788 - 23 Jun 2015
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6638
Abstract
In therapeutic ultrasound applications, accurate ultrasound output intensities are crucial because the physiological effects of therapeutic ultrasound are very sensitive to the intensity and duration of these applications. Although radiation force balance is a benchmark technique for measuring ultrasound intensity and power, it [...] Read more.
In therapeutic ultrasound applications, accurate ultrasound output intensities are crucial because the physiological effects of therapeutic ultrasound are very sensitive to the intensity and duration of these applications. Although radiation force balance is a benchmark technique for measuring ultrasound intensity and power, it is costly, difficult to operate, and compromised by noise vibration. To overcome these limitations, the development of a low-cost, easy to operate, and vibration-resistant alternative device is necessary for rapid ultrasound intensity measurement. Therefore, we proposed and validated a novel two-layer thermoacoustic sensor using an artificial neural network technique to accurately measure low ultrasound intensities between 30 and 120 mW/cm2. The first layer of the sensor design is a cylindrical absorber made of plexiglass, followed by a second layer composed of polyurethane rubber with a high attenuation coefficient to absorb extra ultrasound energy. The sensor determined ultrasound intensities according to a temperature elevation induced by heat converted from incident acoustic energy. Compared with our previous one-layer sensor design, the new two-layer sensor enhanced the ultrasound absorption efficiency to provide more rapid and reliable measurements. Using a three-dimensional model in the K-wave toolbox, our simulation of the ultrasound propagation process demonstrated that the two-layer design is more efficient than the single layer design. We also integrated an artificial neural network algorithm to compensate for the large measurement offset. After obtaining multiple parameters of the sensor characteristics through calibration, the artificial neural network is built to correct temperature drifts and increase the reliability of our thermoacoustic measurements through iterative training about ten seconds. The performance of the artificial neural network method was validated through a series of experiments. Compared to our previous design, the new design reduced sensing time from 20 s to 12 s, and the sensor’s average error from 3.97 mW/cm2 to 1.31 mW/cm2 respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Acoustic Waveguide Sensors)
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2728 KiB  
Review
Biosensing with Förster Resonance Energy Transfer Coupling between Fluorophores and Nanocarbon Allotropes
by Shaowei Ding, Allison A. Cargill, Suprem R. Das, Igor L. Medintz and Jonathan C. Claussen
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14766-14787; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614766 - 23 Jun 2015
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 8872
Abstract
Nanocarbon allotropes (NCAs), including zero-dimensional carbon dots (CDs), one-dimensional carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and two-dimensional graphene, exhibit exceptional material properties, such as unique electrical/thermal conductivity, biocompatibility and high quenching efficiency, that make them well suited for both electrical/electrochemical and optical sensors/biosensors alike. In particular, [...] Read more.
Nanocarbon allotropes (NCAs), including zero-dimensional carbon dots (CDs), one-dimensional carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and two-dimensional graphene, exhibit exceptional material properties, such as unique electrical/thermal conductivity, biocompatibility and high quenching efficiency, that make them well suited for both electrical/electrochemical and optical sensors/biosensors alike. In particular, these material properties have been exploited to significantly enhance the transduction of biorecognition events in fluorescence-based biosensing involving Förster resonant energy transfer (FRET). This review analyzes current advances in sensors and biosensors that utilize graphene, CNTs or CDs as the platform in optical sensors and biosensors. Widely utilized synthesis/fabrication techniques, intrinsic material properties and current research examples of such nanocarbon, FRET-based sensors/biosensors are illustrated. The future outlook and challenges for the research field are also detailed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue FRET Biosensors)
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882 KiB  
Article
First-Principles Studies of Hydrogen Adsorption at Pd-SiO2 Interfaces
by Yoshihiro Irokawa and Mamoru Usami
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14757-14765; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614757 - 22 Jun 2015
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5758
Abstract
The interaction of hydrogen with Pd-SiO2 interfaces has been investigated for the first time using first-principles calculations based on density functional theory. The hydrogen-induced polarization at the Pd-SiO2 interfaces was evaluated using Pd-SiO2 interface supercells. As a result, the potential [...] Read more.
The interaction of hydrogen with Pd-SiO2 interfaces has been investigated for the first time using first-principles calculations based on density functional theory. The hydrogen-induced polarization at the Pd-SiO2 interfaces was evaluated using Pd-SiO2 interface supercells. As a result, the potential change induced by interfacial hydrogen atoms was not observed even for hydrogen concentration of ~1.3 × 1015 cm−2 at the Pd-SiO2 interface. This result implies that hydrogen does not create an electric double layer at the Pd-SiO2 interface but change the property of the SiO2 region, resulting in the hydrogen sensitivity of the devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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3413 KiB  
Article
Electrothermally-Actuated Micromirrors with Bimorph Actuators—Bending-Type and Torsion-Type
by Cheng-Hua Tsai, Chun-Wei Tsai, Hsu-Tang Chang, Shih-Hsiang Liu and Jui-Che Tsai
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14745-14756; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614745 - 22 Jun 2015
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6128
Abstract
Three different electrothermally-actuated MEMS micromirrors with Cr/Au-Si bimorph actuators are proposed. The devices are fabricated with the SOIMUMPs process developed by MEMSCAP, Inc. (Durham, NC, USA). A silicon-on-insulator MEMS process has been employed for the fabrication of these micromirrors. Electrothermal actuation has achieved [...] Read more.
Three different electrothermally-actuated MEMS micromirrors with Cr/Au-Si bimorph actuators are proposed. The devices are fabricated with the SOIMUMPs process developed by MEMSCAP, Inc. (Durham, NC, USA). A silicon-on-insulator MEMS process has been employed for the fabrication of these micromirrors. Electrothermal actuation has achieved a large angular movement in the micromirrors. Application of an external electric current 0.04 A to the bending-type, restricted-torsion-type, and free-torsion-type mirrors achieved rotation angles of 1.69°, 3.28°, and 3.64°, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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3486 KiB  
Article
A 3-Axis Miniature Magnetic Sensor Based on a Planar Fluxgate Magnetometer with an Orthogonal Fluxguide
by Chih-Cheng Lu and Jeff Huang
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14727-14744; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614727 - 19 Jun 2015
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 13780
Abstract
A new class of tri-axial miniature magnetometer consisting of a planar fluxgate structure with an orthogonal ferromagnetic fluxguide centrally situated over the magnetic cores is presented. The magnetic sensor possesses a cruciform ferromagnetic core placed diagonally upon the square excitation coil under which [...] Read more.
A new class of tri-axial miniature magnetometer consisting of a planar fluxgate structure with an orthogonal ferromagnetic fluxguide centrally situated over the magnetic cores is presented. The magnetic sensor possesses a cruciform ferromagnetic core placed diagonally upon the square excitation coil under which two pairs of pick-up coils for in-plane field detection are allocated. Effective principles and analysis of the magnetometer for 3-D field vectors are described and verified by numerically electromagnetic simulation for the excitation and magnetization of the ferromagnetic cores. The sensor is operated by applying the second-harmonic detection technique that can verify V-B relationship and device responsivity. Experimental characterization of the miniature fluxgate device demonstrates satisfactory spatial magnetic field detection results in terms of responsivity and noise spectrum. As a result, at an excitation frequency of 50 kHz, a maximum in-plane responsivity of 122.4 V/T appears and a maximum out-of-plane responsivity of 11.6 V/T is obtained as well. The minimum field noise spectra are found to be 0.11 nT/√Hz and 6.29 nT/√Hz, respectively, in X- and Z-axis at 1 Hz under the same excitation frequency. Compared with the previous tri-axis fluxgate devices, this planar magnetic sensor with an orthogonal fluxguide provides beneficial enhancement in both sensory functionality and manufacturing simplicity. More importantly, this novel device concept is considered highly suitable for the extension to a silicon sensor made by the current CMOS-MEMS technologies, thus emphasizing its emerging applications of field detection in portable industrial electronics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetic Sensor Device-Part 1)
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4549 KiB  
Article
Performance Analysis of Several GPS/Galileo Precise Point Positioning Models
by Akram Afifi and Ahmed El-Rabbany
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14701-14726; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614701 - 19 Jun 2015
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5673
Abstract
This paper examines the performance of several precise point positioning (PPP) models, which combine dual-frequency GPS/Galileo observations in the un-differenced and between-satellite single-difference (BSSD) modes. These include the traditional un-differenced model, the decoupled clock model, the semi-decoupled clock model, and the between-satellite single-difference [...] Read more.
This paper examines the performance of several precise point positioning (PPP) models, which combine dual-frequency GPS/Galileo observations in the un-differenced and between-satellite single-difference (BSSD) modes. These include the traditional un-differenced model, the decoupled clock model, the semi-decoupled clock model, and the between-satellite single-difference model. We take advantage of the IGS-MGEX network products to correct for the satellite differential code biases and the orbital and satellite clock errors. Natural Resources Canada’s GPSPace PPP software is modified to handle the various GPS/Galileo PPP models. A total of six data sets of GPS and Galileo observations at six IGS stations are processed to examine the performance of the various PPP models. It is shown that the traditional un-differenced GPS/Galileo PPP model, the GPS decoupled clock model, and the semi-decoupled clock GPS/Galileo PPP model improve the convergence time by about 25% in comparison with the un-differenced GPS-only model. In addition, the semi-decoupled GPS/Galileo PPP model improves the solution precision by about 25% compared to the traditional un-differenced GPS/Galileo PPP model. Moreover, the BSSD GPS/Galileo PPP model improves the solution convergence time by about 50%, in comparison with the un-differenced GPS PPP model, regardless of the type of BSSD combination used. As well, the BSSD model improves the precision of the estimated parameters by about 50% and 25% when the loose and the tight combinations are used, respectively, in comparison with the un-differenced GPS-only model. Comparable results are obtained through the tight combination when either a GPS or a Galileo satellite is selected as a reference. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems)
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4195 KiB  
Article
Gaze-Assisted User Intention Prediction for Initial Delay Reduction in Web Video Access
by Seungyup Lee, Juwan Yoo and Gunhee Han
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14679-14700; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614679 - 19 Jun 2015
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6701
Abstract
Despite the remarkable improvement of hardware and network technology, the inevitable delay from a user’s command action to a system response is still one of the most crucial influence factors in user experiences (UXs). Especially for a web video service, an initial delay [...] Read more.
Despite the remarkable improvement of hardware and network technology, the inevitable delay from a user’s command action to a system response is still one of the most crucial influence factors in user experiences (UXs). Especially for a web video service, an initial delay from click action to video start has significant influences on the quality of experience (QoE). The initial delay of a system can be minimized by preparing execution based on predicted user’s intention prior to actual command action. The introduction of the sequential and concurrent flow of resources in human cognition and behavior can significantly improve the accuracy and preparation time for intention prediction. This paper introduces a threaded interaction model and applies it to user intention prediction for initial delay reduction in web video access. The proposed technique consists of a candidate selection module, a decision module and a preparation module that prefetches and preloads the web video data before a user’s click action. The candidate selection module selects candidates in the web page using proximity calculation around a cursor. Meanwhile, the decision module computes the possibility of actual click action based on the cursor-gaze relationship. The preparation activates the prefetching for the selected candidates when the click possibility exceeds a certain limit in the decision module. Experimental results show a 92% hit-ratio, 0.5-s initial delay on average and 1.5-s worst initial delay, which is much less than a user’s tolerable limit in web video access, demonstrating significant improvement of accuracy and advance time in intention prediction by introducing the proposed threaded interaction model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue HCI In Smart Environments)
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9536 KiB  
Article
Radar Sensing for Intelligent Vehicles in Urban Environments
by Giulio Reina, David Johnson and James Underwood
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14661-14678; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614661 - 19 Jun 2015
Cited by 66 | Viewed by 9544
Abstract
Radar overcomes the shortcomings of laser, stereovision, and sonar because it can operate successfully in dusty, foggy, blizzard-blinding, and poorly lit scenarios. This paper presents a novel method for ground and obstacle segmentation based on radar sensing. The algorithm operates directly in the [...] Read more.
Radar overcomes the shortcomings of laser, stereovision, and sonar because it can operate successfully in dusty, foggy, blizzard-blinding, and poorly lit scenarios. This paper presents a novel method for ground and obstacle segmentation based on radar sensing. The algorithm operates directly in the sensor frame, without the need for a separate synchronised navigation source, calibration parameters describing the location of the radar in the vehicle frame, or the geometric restrictions made in the previous main method in the field. Experimental results are presented in various urban scenarios to validate this approach, showing its potential applicability for advanced driving assistance systems and autonomous vehicle operations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors in New Road Vehicles)
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19277 KiB  
Article
Loop Closing Detection in RGB-D SLAM Combining Appearance and Geometric Constraints
by Heng Zhang, Yanli Liu and Jindong Tan
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14639-14660; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614639 - 19 Jun 2015
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7884
Abstract
A kind of multi feature points matching algorithm fusing local geometric constraints is proposed for the purpose of quickly loop closing detection in RGB-D Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM). The visual feature is encoded with BRAND (binary robust appearance and normals descriptor), which [...] Read more.
A kind of multi feature points matching algorithm fusing local geometric constraints is proposed for the purpose of quickly loop closing detection in RGB-D Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM). The visual feature is encoded with BRAND (binary robust appearance and normals descriptor), which efficiently combines appearance and geometric shape information from RGB-D images. Furthermore, the feature descriptors are stored using the Locality-Sensitive-Hashing (LSH) technique and hierarchical clustering trees are used to search for these binary features. Finally, the algorithm for matching of multi feature points using local geometric constraints is provided, which can effectively reject the possible false closure hypotheses. We demonstrate the efficiency of our algorithms by real-time RGB-D SLAM with loop closing detection in indoor image sequences taken with a handheld Kinect camera and comparative experiments using other algorithms in RTAB-Map dealing with a benchmark dataset. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Indoor Mapping and Navigation)
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2458 KiB  
Article
Fingerprint Liveness Detection in the Presence of Capable Intruders
by Ana F. Sequeira and Jaime S. Cardoso
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14615-14638; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614615 - 19 Jun 2015
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6354
Abstract
Fingerprint liveness detection methods have been developed as an attempt to overcome the vulnerability of fingerprint biometric systems to spoofing attacks. Traditional approaches have been quite optimistic about the behavior of the intruder assuming the use of a previously known material. This assumption [...] Read more.
Fingerprint liveness detection methods have been developed as an attempt to overcome the vulnerability of fingerprint biometric systems to spoofing attacks. Traditional approaches have been quite optimistic about the behavior of the intruder assuming the use of a previously known material. This assumption has led to the use of supervised techniques to estimate the performance of the methods, using both live and spoof samples to train the predictive models and evaluate each type of fake samples individually. Additionally, the background was often included in the sample representation, completely distorting the decision process. Therefore, we propose that an automatic segmentation step should be performed to isolate the fingerprint from the background and truly decide on the liveness of the fingerprint and not on the characteristics of the background. Also, we argue that one cannot aim to model the fake samples completely since the material used by the intruder is unknown beforehand. We approach the design by modeling the distribution of the live samples and predicting as fake the samples very unlikely according to that model. Our experiments compare the performance of the supervised approaches with the semi-supervised ones that rely solely on the live samples. The results obtained differ from the ones obtained by the more standard approaches which reinforces our conviction that the results in the literature are misleadingly estimating the true vulnerability of the biometric system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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6919 KiB  
Article
Citizen Sensors for SHM: Towards a Crowdsourcing Platform
by Ekin Ozer, Maria Q. Feng and Dongming Feng
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14591-14614; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614591 - 19 Jun 2015
Cited by 72 | Viewed by 8230
Abstract
This paper presents an innovative structural health monitoring (SHM) platform in terms of how it integrates smartphone sensors, the web, and crowdsourcing. The ubiquity of smartphones has provided an opportunity to create low-cost sensor networks for SHM. Crowdsourcing has given rise to citizen [...] Read more.
This paper presents an innovative structural health monitoring (SHM) platform in terms of how it integrates smartphone sensors, the web, and crowdsourcing. The ubiquity of smartphones has provided an opportunity to create low-cost sensor networks for SHM. Crowdsourcing has given rise to citizen initiatives becoming a vast source of inexpensive, valuable but heterogeneous data. Previously, the authors have investigated the reliability of smartphone accelerometers for vibration-based SHM. This paper takes a step further to integrate mobile sensing and web-based computing for a prospective crowdsourcing-based SHM platform. An iOS application was developed to enable citizens to measure structural vibration and upload the data to a server with smartphones. A web-based platform was developed to collect and process the data automatically and store the processed data, such as modal properties of the structure, for long-term SHM purposes. Finally, the integrated mobile and web-based platforms were tested to collect the low-amplitude ambient vibration data of a bridge structure. Possible sources of uncertainties related to citizens were investigated, including the phone location, coupling conditions, and sampling duration. The field test results showed that the vibration data acquired by smartphones operated by citizens without expertise are useful for identifying structural modal properties with high accuracy. This platform can be further developed into an automated, smart, sustainable, cost-free system for long-term monitoring of structural integrity of spatially distributed urban infrastructure. Citizen Sensors for SHM will be a novel participatory sensing platform in the way that it offers hybrid solutions to transitional crowdsourcing parameters. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Smart Cities)
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648 KiB  
Article
On-Board Event-Based State Estimation for Trajectory Approaching and Tracking of a Vehicle
by Miguel Martínez-Rey, Felipe Espinosa, Alfredo Gardel and Carlos Santos
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14569-14590; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614569 - 19 Jun 2015
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6412
Abstract
For the problem of pose estimation of an autonomous vehicle using networked external sensors, the processing capacity and battery consumption of these sensors, as well as the communication channel load should be optimized. Here, we report an event-based state estimator (EBSE) consisting of [...] Read more.
For the problem of pose estimation of an autonomous vehicle using networked external sensors, the processing capacity and battery consumption of these sensors, as well as the communication channel load should be optimized. Here, we report an event-based state estimator (EBSE) consisting of an unscented Kalman filter that uses a triggering mechanism based on the estimation error covariance matrix to request measurements from the external sensors. This EBSE generates the events of the estimator module on-board the vehicle and, thus, allows the sensors to remain in stand-by mode until an event is generated. The proposed algorithm requests a measurement every time the estimation distance root mean squared error (DRMS) value, obtained from the estimator’s covariance matrix, exceeds a threshold value. This triggering threshold can be adapted to the vehicle’s working conditions rendering the estimator even more efficient. An example of the use of the proposed EBSE is given, where the autonomous vehicle must approach and follow a reference trajectory. By making the threshold a function of the distance to the reference location, the estimator can halve the use of the sensors with a negligible deterioration in the performance of the approaching maneuver. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cyber-Physical Systems)
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1484 KiB  
Review
DNA-Based Nanobiosensors as an Emerging Platform for Detection of Disease
by Khalid M. Abu-Salah, Mohammed M. Zourob, Fouzi Mouffouk, Salman A. Alrokayan, Manal A. Alaamery and Anees A. Ansari
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14539-14568; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614539 - 19 Jun 2015
Cited by 100 | Viewed by 15610
Abstract
Detection of disease at an early stage is one of the biggest challenges in medicine. Different disciplines of science are working together in this regard. The goal of nanodiagnostics is to provide more accurate tools for earlier diagnosis, to reduce cost and to [...] Read more.
Detection of disease at an early stage is one of the biggest challenges in medicine. Different disciplines of science are working together in this regard. The goal of nanodiagnostics is to provide more accurate tools for earlier diagnosis, to reduce cost and to simplify healthcare delivery of effective and personalized medicine, especially with regard to chronic diseases (e.g., diabetes and cardiovascular diseases) that have high healthcare costs. Up-to-date results suggest that DNA-based nanobiosensors could be used effectively to provide simple, fast, cost-effective, sensitive and specific detection of some genetic, cancer, and infectious diseases. In addition, they could potentially be used as a platform to detect immunodeficiency, and neurological and other diseases. This review examines different types of DNA-based nanobiosensors, the basic principles upon which they are based and their advantages and potential in diagnosis of acute and chronic diseases. We discuss recent trends and applications of new strategies for DNA-based nanobiosensors, and emphasize the challenges in translating basic research to the clinical laboratory. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)
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860 KiB  
Article
Simultaneous Voltammetric/Amperometric Determination of Sulfide and Nitrite in Water at BDD Electrode
by Anamaria Baciu, Magdalena Ardelean, Aniela Pop, Rodica Pode and Florica Manea
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14526-14538; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614526 - 19 Jun 2015
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6837
Abstract
This work reported new voltammetric/amperometric-based protocols using a commercial boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode for simple and fast simultaneous detection of sulfide and nitrite from water. Square-wave voltammetry operated under the optimized working conditions of 0.01 V step potential, 0.5 V modulation amplitude and [...] Read more.
This work reported new voltammetric/amperometric-based protocols using a commercial boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrode for simple and fast simultaneous detection of sulfide and nitrite from water. Square-wave voltammetry operated under the optimized working conditions of 0.01 V step potential, 0.5 V modulation amplitude and 10 Hz frequency allowed achieving the best electroanalytical parameters for the simultaneous detection of nitrite and sulfide. For practical in-field detection applications, the multiple-pulsed amperometry technique was operated under optimized conditions, i.e., −0.5 V/SCE for a duration of 0.3 s as conditioning step, +0.85 V/SCE for a duration of 3 s that assure the sulfide oxidation and +1.25 V/SCE for a duration of 0.3 s, where the nitrite oxidation occurred, which allowed the simultaneously detection of sulfide and nitrite without interference between them. Good accuracy was found for this protocol in comparison with standardized methods for each anion. Also, no interference effect was found for the cation and anion species, which are common in the water matrix. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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801 KiB  
Review
The Role of Infrared Thermography as a Non-Invasive Tool for the Detection of Lameness in Cattle
by Maher Alsaaod, Allan L. Schaefer, Wolfgang Büscher and Adrian Steiner
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14513-14525; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614513 - 18 Jun 2015
Cited by 51 | Viewed by 8600
Abstract
The use of infrared thermography for the identification of lameness in cattle has increased in recent years largely because of its non-invasive properties, ease of automation and continued cost reductions. Thermography can be used to identify and determine thermal abnormalities in animals by [...] Read more.
The use of infrared thermography for the identification of lameness in cattle has increased in recent years largely because of its non-invasive properties, ease of automation and continued cost reductions. Thermography can be used to identify and determine thermal abnormalities in animals by characterizing an increase or decrease in the surface temperature of their skin. The variation in superficial thermal patterns resulting from changes in blood flow in particular can be used to detect inflammation or injury associated with conditions such as foot lesions. Thermography has been used not only as a diagnostic tool, but also to evaluate routine farm management. Since 2000, 14 peer reviewed papers which discuss the assessment of thermography to identify and manage lameness in cattle have been published. There was a large difference in thermography performance in these reported studies. However, thermography was demonstrated to have utility for the detection of contralateral temperature difference and maximum foot temperature on areas of interest. Also apparent in these publications was that a controlled environment is an important issue that should be considered before image scanning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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972 KiB  
Article
Hands-On Experiences in Deploying Cost-Effective Ambient-Assisted Living Systems
by Athanasios Dasios, Damianos Gavalas, Grammati Pantziou and Charalampos Konstantopoulos
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14487-14512; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614487 - 18 Jun 2015
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 10700
Abstract
Older adults’ preferences to remain independent in their own homes along with the high costs of nursing home care have motivated the development of Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) technologies which aim at improving the safety, health conditions and wellness of the elderly. This [...] Read more.
Older adults’ preferences to remain independent in their own homes along with the high costs of nursing home care have motivated the development of Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) technologies which aim at improving the safety, health conditions and wellness of the elderly. This paper reports hands-on experiences in designing, implementing and operating UbiCare, an AAL based prototype system for elderly home care monitoring. The monitoring is based on the recording of environmental parameters like temperature and light intensity as well as micro-level incidents which allows one to infer daily activities like moving, sitting, sleeping, usage of electrical appliances and plumbing components. The prototype is built upon inexpensive, off-the-shelf hardware (e.g., various sensors, Arduino microcontrollers, ZigBee-compatible wireless communication modules) and license-free software, thereby ensuring low system deployment costs. The network comprises nodes placed in a house’s main rooms or mounted on furniture, one wearable node, one actuator node and a centralized processing element (coordinator). Upon detecting significant deviations from the ordinary activity patterns of individuals and/or sudden falls, the system issues automated alarms which may be forwarded to authorized caregivers via a variety of communication channels. Furthermore, measured environmental parameters and activity incidents may be monitored through standard web interfaces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Smart Cities)
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1072 KiB  
Article
DEADS: Depth and Energy Aware Dominating Set Based Algorithm for Cooperative Routing along with Sink Mobility in Underwater WSNs
by Amara Umar, Nadeem Javaid, Ashfaq Ahmad, Zahoor Ali Khan, Umar Qasim, Nabil Alrajeh and Amir Hayat
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14458-14486; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614458 - 18 Jun 2015
Cited by 52 | Viewed by 6079
Abstract
Performance enhancement of Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) in terms of throughput maximization, energy conservation and Bit Error Rate (BER) minimization is a potential research area. However, limited available bandwidth, high propagation delay, highly dynamic network topology, and high error probability leads to [...] Read more.
Performance enhancement of Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) in terms of throughput maximization, energy conservation and Bit Error Rate (BER) minimization is a potential research area. However, limited available bandwidth, high propagation delay, highly dynamic network topology, and high error probability leads to performance degradation in these networks. In this regard, many cooperative communication protocols have been developed that either investigate the physical layer or the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer, however, the network layer is still unexplored. More specifically, cooperative routing has not yet been jointly considered with sink mobility. Therefore, this paper aims to enhance the network reliability and efficiency via dominating set based cooperative routing and sink mobility. The proposed work is validated via simulations which show relatively improved performance of our proposed work in terms the selected performance metrics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)
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3560 KiB  
Article
Inertial Sensor-Based Touch and Shake Metaphor for Expressive Control of 3D Virtual Avatars
by Shashidhar Patil, Harinadha Reddy Chintalapalli, Dubeom Kim and Youngho Chai
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14435-14457; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614435 - 18 Jun 2015
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 7699
Abstract
In this paper, we present an inertial sensor-based touch and shake metaphor for expressive control of a 3D virtual avatar in a virtual environment. An intuitive six degrees-of-freedom wireless inertial motion sensor is used as a gesture and motion control input device with [...] Read more.
In this paper, we present an inertial sensor-based touch and shake metaphor for expressive control of a 3D virtual avatar in a virtual environment. An intuitive six degrees-of-freedom wireless inertial motion sensor is used as a gesture and motion control input device with a sensor fusion algorithm. The algorithm enables user hand motions to be tracked in 3D space via magnetic, angular rate, and gravity sensors. A quaternion-based complementary filter is implemented to reduce noise and drift. An algorithm based on dynamic time-warping is developed for efficient recognition of dynamic hand gestures with real-time automatic hand gesture segmentation. Our approach enables the recognition of gestures and estimates gesture variations for continuous interaction. We demonstrate the gesture expressivity using an interactive flexible gesture mapping interface for authoring and controlling a 3D virtual avatar and its motion by tracking user dynamic hand gestures. This synthesizes stylistic variations in a 3D virtual avatar, producing motions that are not present in the motion database using hand gesture sequences from a single inertial motion sensor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Inertial Sensors and Systems)
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4189 KiB  
Article
Submersible Spectrofluorometer for Real-Time Sensing of Water Quality
by Adriana Puiu, Luca Fiorani, Ivano Menicucci, Marco Pistilli and Antonia Lai
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14415-14434; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614415 - 18 Jun 2015
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8312
Abstract
In this work, we present a newly developed submersible spectrofluorometer (patent pending) applied to real-time sensing of water quality, suitable for monitoring some important indicators of the ecological status of natural waters such as chlorophyll-a, oil and protein-like material. For the optomechanical realization [...] Read more.
In this work, we present a newly developed submersible spectrofluorometer (patent pending) applied to real-time sensing of water quality, suitable for monitoring some important indicators of the ecological status of natural waters such as chlorophyll-a, oil and protein-like material. For the optomechanical realization of the apparatus, a novel conceptual design has been adopted in order to avoid filters and pumps while maintaining a high signal-to-noise ratio. The elimination of filters and pumps has the advantage of greater system simplicity and especially of avoiding the risk of sample degradation. The use of light-emitting diodes as an excitation source instead of Xe lamps or laser diodes helped save on size, weight, power consumption and costs. For sensor calibration we performed measurements on water samples with added chlorophyll prepared in the laboratory. The sensor functionality was tested during field campaigns conducted at Albano Lake in Latium Region of Italy as well as in the Herzliya Harbor, a few kilometers North East of Tel Aviv in Israel. The obtained results are reported in the paper. The sensitivity achieved for chlorophyll-a detection was found to be at least 0.2 µg/L. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Technologies for Sensing Pollution in Air, Water, and Soil)
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20188 KiB  
Article
Forward Looking Radar Imaging by Truncated Singular Value Decomposition and Its Application for Adverse Weather Aircraft Landing
by Yulin Huang, Yuebo Zha, Yue Wang and Jianyu Yang
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14397-14414; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614397 - 18 Jun 2015
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6174
Abstract
The forward looking radar imaging task is a practical and challenging problem for adverse weather aircraft landing industry. Deconvolution method can realize the forward looking imaging but it often leads to the noise amplification in the radar image. In this paper, a forward [...] Read more.
The forward looking radar imaging task is a practical and challenging problem for adverse weather aircraft landing industry. Deconvolution method can realize the forward looking imaging but it often leads to the noise amplification in the radar image. In this paper, a forward looking radar imaging based on deconvolution method is presented for adverse weather aircraft landing. We first present the theoretical background of forward looking radar imaging task and its application for aircraft landing. Then, we convert the forward looking radar imaging task into a corresponding deconvolution problem, which is solved in the framework of algebraic theory using truncated singular decomposition method. The key issue regarding the selecting of the truncated parameter is addressed using generalized cross validation approach. Simulation and experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method is effective in achieving angular resolution enhancement with suppressing the noise amplification in forward looking radar imaging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)
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1983 KiB  
Article
Managing Emergency Situations in the Smart City: The Smart Signal
by Ángel Asensio, Teresa Blanco, Rubén Blasco, Álvaro Marco and Roberto Casas
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14370-14396; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614370 - 18 Jun 2015
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7727
Abstract
In a city there are numerous items, many of them unnoticed but essential; this is the case of the signals. Signals are considered objects with reduced technological interest, but in this paper we prove that making them smart and integrating in the IoT [...] Read more.
In a city there are numerous items, many of them unnoticed but essential; this is the case of the signals. Signals are considered objects with reduced technological interest, but in this paper we prove that making them smart and integrating in the IoT (Internet of Things) could be a relevant contribution to the Smart City. This paper presents the concept of Smart Signal, as a device conscious of its context, with communication skills, able to offer the best message to the user, and as a ubiquitous element that contributes with information to the city. We present the design considerations and a real implementation and validation of the system in one of the most challenging environments that may exist in a city: a tunnel. The main advantages of the Smart Signal are the improvement of the actual functionality of the signal providing new interaction capabilities with users and a new sensory mechanism of the Smart City. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Smart Cities)
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2522 KiB  
Article
Application of Cavity Enhanced Absorption Spectroscopy to the Detection of Nitric Oxide, Carbonyl Sulphide, and Ethane—Breath Biomarkers of Serious Diseases
by Jacek Wojtas
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14356-14369; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614356 - 17 Jun 2015
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6952
Abstract
The paper presents one of the laser absorption spectroscopy techniques as an effective tool for sensitive analysis of trace gas species in human breath. Characterization of nitric oxide, carbonyl sulphide and ethane, and the selection of their absorption lines are described. Experiments with [...] Read more.
The paper presents one of the laser absorption spectroscopy techniques as an effective tool for sensitive analysis of trace gas species in human breath. Characterization of nitric oxide, carbonyl sulphide and ethane, and the selection of their absorption lines are described. Experiments with some biomarkers showed that detection of pathogenic changes at the molecular level is possible using this technique. Thanks to cavity enhanced spectroscopy application, detection limits at the ppb-level and short measurements time (<3 s) were achieved. Absorption lines of reference samples of the selected volatile biomarkers were probed using a distributed feedback quantum cascade laser and a tunable laser system consisting of an optical parametric oscillator and difference frequency generator. Setup using the first source provided a detection limit of 30 ppb for nitric oxide and 250 ppb for carbonyl sulphide. During experiments employing a second laser, detection limits of 0.9 ppb and 0.3 ppb were obtained for carbonyl sulphide and ethane, respectively. The conducted experiments show that this type of diagnosis would significantly increase chances for effective therapy of some diseases. Additionally, it offers non-invasive and real time measurements, high sensitivity and selectivity as well as minimizing discomfort for patients. For that reason, such sensors can be used in screening for early detection of serious diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Sensors based on In Situ Spectroscopy)
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4091 KiB  
Article
Electrical Characterization of 3D Au Microelectrodes for Use in Retinal Prostheses
by Sangmin Lee, Jae Hyun Ahn, Jong-Mo Seo, Hum Chung and Dong-Il Cho
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14345-14355; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614345 - 17 Jun 2015
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5767
Abstract
In order to provide high-quality visual information to patients who have implanted retinal prosthetic devices, the number of microelectrodes should be large. As the number of microelectrodes is increased, the dimensions of each microelectrode must be decreased, which in turn results in an [...] Read more.
In order to provide high-quality visual information to patients who have implanted retinal prosthetic devices, the number of microelectrodes should be large. As the number of microelectrodes is increased, the dimensions of each microelectrode must be decreased, which in turn results in an increased microelectrode interface impedance and decreased injection current dynamic range. In order to improve the trade-off envelope between the number of microelectrodes and the current injection characteristics, a 3D microelectrode structure can be used as an alternative. In this paper, the electrical characteristics of 2D and 3D Au microelectrodes were investigated. In order to examine the effects of the structural difference, 2D and 3D Au microelectrodes with different base areas but similar effective surface areas were fabricated and evaluated. Interface impedances were measured and similar dynamic ranges were obtained for both 2D and 3D Au microelectrodes. These results indicate that more electrodes can be implemented in the same area if 3D designs are used. Furthermore, the 3D Au microelectrodes showed substantially enhanced electrical durability characteristics against over-injected stimulation currents, withstanding electrical currents that are much larger than the limit measured for 2D microelectrodes of similar area. This enhanced electrical durability property of 3D Au microelectrodes is a new finding in microelectrode research, and makes 3D microelectrodes very desirable devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biosensors)
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2708 KiB  
Article
Fast Measurement and Reconstruction of Large Workpieces with Freeform Surfaces by Combining Local Scanning and Global Position Data
by Zhe Chen, Fumin Zhang, Xinghua Qu and Baoqiu Liang
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14328-14344; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614328 - 17 Jun 2015
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5319
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a new approach for the measurement and reconstruction of large workpieces with freeform surfaces. The system consists of a handheld laser scanning sensor and a position sensor. The laser scanning sensor is used to acquire the surface and [...] Read more.
In this paper, we propose a new approach for the measurement and reconstruction of large workpieces with freeform surfaces. The system consists of a handheld laser scanning sensor and a position sensor. The laser scanning sensor is used to acquire the surface and geometry information, and the position sensor is utilized to unify the scanning sensors into a global coordinate system. The measurement process includes data collection, multi-sensor data fusion and surface reconstruction. With the multi-sensor data fusion, errors accumulated during the image alignment and registration process are minimized, and the measuring precision is significantly improved. After the dense accurate acquisition of the three-dimensional (3-D) coordinates, the surface is reconstructed using a commercial software piece, based on the Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines (NURBS) surface. The system has been evaluated, both qualitatively and quantitatively, using reference measurements provided by a commercial laser scanning sensor. The method has been applied for the reconstruction of a large gear rim and the accuracy is up to 0.0963 mm. The results prove that this new combined method is promising for measuring and reconstructing the large-scale objects with complex surface geometry. Compared with reported methods of large-scale shape measurement, it owns high freedom in motion, high precision and high measurement speed in a wide measurement range. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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4790 KiB  
Article
An Indoor Mobile Location Estimator in Mixed Line of Sight/Non-Line of Sight Environments Using Replacement Modified Hidden Markov Models and an Interacting Multiple Model
by Jingyu Ru, Chengdong Wu, Zixi Jia, Yufang Yang, Yunzhou Zhang and Nan Hu
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14298-14327; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614298 - 17 Jun 2015
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5435
Abstract
Localization as a technique to solve the complex and challenging problems besetting line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS) transmissions has recently attracted considerable attention in the wireless sensor network field. This paper proposes a strategy for eliminating NLOS localization errors during calculation of the [...] Read more.
Localization as a technique to solve the complex and challenging problems besetting line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS) transmissions has recently attracted considerable attention in the wireless sensor network field. This paper proposes a strategy for eliminating NLOS localization errors during calculation of the location of mobile terminals (MTs) in unfamiliar indoor environments. In order to improve the hidden Markov model (HMM), we propose two modified algorithms, namely, modified HMM (M-HMM) and replacement modified HMM (RM-HMM). Further, a hybrid localization algorithm that combines HMM with an interacting multiple model (IMM) is proposed to represent the velocity of mobile nodes. This velocity model is divided into a high-speed and a low-speed model, which means the nodes move at different speeds following the same mobility pattern. Each moving node continually switches its state based on its probability. Consequently, to improve precision, each moving node uses the IMM model to integrate the results from the HMM and its modified forms. Simulation experiments conducted show that our proposed algorithms perform well in both distance estimation and coordinate calculation, with increasing accuracy of localization of the proposed algorithms in the order M-HMM, RM-HMM, and HMM + IMM. The simulations also show that the three algorithms are accurate, stable, and robust. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)
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2760 KiB  
Article
A Room Temperature H2 Sensor Fabricated Using High Performance Pt-Loaded SnO2 Nanoparticles
by Sheng-Chang Wang and Muhammad Omar Shaikh
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14286-14297; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614286 - 17 Jun 2015
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 7385
Abstract
Highly sensitive H2 gas sensors were prepared using pure and Pt-loaded SnO2 nanoparticles. Thick film sensors (~35 μm) were fabricated that showed a highly porous interconnected structure made of high density small grained nanoparticles. Using Pt as catalyst improved sensor response [...] Read more.
Highly sensitive H2 gas sensors were prepared using pure and Pt-loaded SnO2 nanoparticles. Thick film sensors (~35 μm) were fabricated that showed a highly porous interconnected structure made of high density small grained nanoparticles. Using Pt as catalyst improved sensor response and reduced the operating temperature for achieving high sensitivity because of the negative temperature coefficient observed in Pt-loaded SnO2. The highest sensor response to 1000 ppm H2 was 10,500 at room temperature with a response time of 20 s. The morphology of the SnO2 nanoparticles, the surface loading concentration and dispersion of the Pt catalyst and the microstructure of the sensing layer all play a key role in the development of an effective gas sensing device. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gas Sensors—Designs and Applications)
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3361 KiB  
Article
Novel Gyroscopic Mounting for Crystal Oscillators to Increase Short and Medium Term Stability under Highly Dynamic Conditions
by Maryam Abedi, Tian Jin and Kewen Sun
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14261-14285; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614261 - 17 Jun 2015
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5642
Abstract
In this paper, a gyroscopic mounting method for crystal oscillators to reduce the impact of dynamic loads on their output stability has been proposed. In order to prove the efficiency of this mounting approach, each dynamic load-induced instability has been analyzed in detail. [...] Read more.
In this paper, a gyroscopic mounting method for crystal oscillators to reduce the impact of dynamic loads on their output stability has been proposed. In order to prove the efficiency of this mounting approach, each dynamic load-induced instability has been analyzed in detail. A statistical study has been performed on the elevation angle of the g-sensitivity vector of Stress Compensated-cut (SC-cut) crystals. The analysis results show that the proposed gyroscopic mounting method gives good performance for host vehicle attitude changes. A phase noise improvement of 27 dB maximum and 5.7 dB on average can be achieved in the case of steady state loads, while under sinusoidal vibration conditions, the maximum and average phase noise improvement are as high as 24 dB and 7.5 dB respectively. With this gyroscopic mounting method, random vibration-induced phase noise instability is reduced 30 dB maximum and 8.7 dB on average. Good effects are apparent for crystal g-sensitivity vectors with low elevation angle φ and azimuthal angle β. under highly dynamic conditions, indicating the probability that crystal oscillator instability will be significantly reduced by using the proposed mounting approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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1122 KiB  
Article
Acoustic Biometric System Based on Preprocessing Techniques and Linear Support Vector Machines
by Lara Del Val, Alberto Izquierdo-Fuente, Juan J. Villacorta and Mariano Raboso
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14241-14260; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614241 - 17 Jun 2015
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5090
Abstract
Drawing on the results of an acoustic biometric system based on a MSE classifier, a new biometric system has been implemented. This new system preprocesses acoustic images, extracts several parameters and finally classifies them, based on Support Vector Machine (SVM). The preprocessing techniques [...] Read more.
Drawing on the results of an acoustic biometric system based on a MSE classifier, a new biometric system has been implemented. This new system preprocesses acoustic images, extracts several parameters and finally classifies them, based on Support Vector Machine (SVM). The preprocessing techniques used are spatial filtering, segmentation—based on a Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) to separate the person from the background, masking—to reduce the dimensions of images—and binarization—to reduce the size of each image. An analysis of classification error and a study of the sensitivity of the error versus the computational burden of each implemented algorithm are presented. This allows the selection of the most relevant algorithms, according to the benefits required by the system. A significant improvement of the biometric system has been achieved by reducing the classification error, the computational burden and the storage requirements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)
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2581 KiB  
Article
Synthesis and Gas Sensing Properties of Single La-Doped SnO2 Nanobelts
by Yuemei Wu, Heng Zhang, Yingkai Liu, Weiwu Chen, Jiang Ma, Shuanghui Li and Zhaojun Qin
Sensors 2015, 15(6), 14230-14240; https://doi.org/10.3390/s150614230 - 16 Jun 2015
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5977
Abstract
Single crystal SnO2 nanobelts (SnO2 NBs) and La-SnO2 nanobelts (La-SnO2 NBs) were synthesized by thermal evaporation. Both a single SnO2 NB sensor and a single La-SnO2 NB sensor were developed and their sensing properties were investigated. It [...] Read more.
Single crystal SnO2 nanobelts (SnO2 NBs) and La-SnO2 nanobelts (La-SnO2 NBs) were synthesized by thermal evaporation. Both a single SnO2 NB sensor and a single La-SnO2 NB sensor were developed and their sensing properties were investigated. It is found that the single La-SnO2 NB sensor had a high sensitivity of 8.76 to ethanediol at a concentration of 100 ppm at 230 °C, which is the highest sensitivity of a single SnO2 NB to ethanediol among three kinds of volatile organic (VOC) liquids studied, including ethanediol, ethanol, and acetone. The La-SnO2 NBs sensor also exhibits a high sensitivity, good selectivity and long-term stability with prompt response time to ethanediol. The mechanism behind the enhanced sensing performance of La-doped SnO2 nanobelts is discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Sensors)
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