Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 July 2016) | Viewed by 114358

Special Issue Editor

Macromolecular Chemistry and New Polymeric Materials, Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
Interests: biocatalysis in polymer chemistry; enzymatic polymerizations; green polymer chemistry; biocatalytic monomer synthesis; biocatalytic polymer modification; enzyme immobilization; unraveling the mechanism of biocatalytic polymerizations; biobased monomers and polymers; sustainability; polysaccharides; starch; anionic polymerization; controlled radical polymerization; block copolymer synthesis; supramolecular assembly; block copolymer self-assembly
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Enzymatic monomer synthesis, polymer modifications and polymerizations are powerful and versatile approaches which can compete with chemical and physical techniques for the production of known materials such as “commodity plastics” but also for the synthesis of novel macromolecules so far not accessible via traditional chemical approaches. Biocatalytic synthetic pathways towards polymeric materials are very attractive as they have many advantages such as mild reaction conditions, high enantio-, regio-, chemoselectivity and are nontoxic natural catalysts.

This special issue of Polymers entitled "Enzymes in Monomer and Polymer Synthesis" will cover the whole line of current research involved in this field starting from enzyme development, enzyme immobilization, sustainable monomers, in vitro and in vivo monomer synthesis towards enzymatic polymer modifications and polymerizations.

Prof. Dr. Katja Loos
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • Enzymatic Polymerization
  • Biocatalytic Monomer Synthesis
  • Enzyme Immobilization
  • Enzymatic Polymer Modification
  • Polymerizations in Whole Cells

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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2838 KiB  
Article
Nanoclays for Lipase Immobilization: Biocatalyst Characterization and Activity in Polyester Synthesis
by Hale Öztürk, Eric Pollet, Vincent Phalip, Yüksel Güvenilir and Luc Avérous
Polymers 2016, 8(12), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8120416 - 01 Dec 2016
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4878
Abstract
The immobilization of Candida antarctica lipase B (CALB) was performed by physical adsorption on both neat and organo-modified forms of sepiolite and montmorillonite. The influence of different parameters, e.g., solvent, enzyme loading, cross-linking, and type of clay support, on immobilization efficiency and catalyst [...] Read more.
The immobilization of Candida antarctica lipase B (CALB) was performed by physical adsorption on both neat and organo-modified forms of sepiolite and montmorillonite. The influence of different parameters, e.g., solvent, enzyme loading, cross-linking, and type of clay support, on immobilization efficiency and catalyst hydrolytic activity has been investigated. The highest hydrolytic activities were obtained for CALB immobilized on organo-modified clay minerals, highlighting the beneficial effect of organo-modification. The esterification activity of these CALB/organoclay catalysts was also tested in the ring-opening polymerization of ε-caprolactone. The polymerization kinetics observed for clay-immobilized catalysts confirmed that CALB adsorbed on organo-modified montmorillonite (CALB/MMTMOD) was the highest-performing catalytic system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis)
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2743 KiB  
Article
CaLB Catalyzed Conversion of ε-Caprolactone in Aqueous Medium. Part 1: Immobilization of CaLB to Microgels
by Stefan Engel, Heidi Höck, Marco Bocola, Helmut Keul, Ulrich Schwaneberg and Martin Möller
Polymers 2016, 8(10), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8100372 - 19 Oct 2016
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 8231
Abstract
The enzymatic ring-opening polymerization of lactones is a method of increasing interest for the synthesis of biodegradable and biocompatible polymers. In the past it was shown that immobilization of Candida antarctica lipase B (CaLB) and the reaction medium play an important role in [...] Read more.
The enzymatic ring-opening polymerization of lactones is a method of increasing interest for the synthesis of biodegradable and biocompatible polymers. In the past it was shown that immobilization of Candida antarctica lipase B (CaLB) and the reaction medium play an important role in the polymerization ability especially of medium ring size lactones like ε-caprolactone (ε-CL). We investigated a route for the preparation of compartmentalized microgels based on poly(glycidol) in which CaLB was immobilized to increase its esterification ability. To find the ideal environment for CaLB, we investigated the acceptable water concentration and the accessibility for the monomer in model polymerizations in toluene and analyzed the obtained oligomers/polymers by NMR and SEC. We observed a sufficient accessibility for ε-CL to a toluene like hydrophobic phase imitating a hydrophobic microgel. Comparing free CaLB and Novozym® 435 we found that not the monomer concentration but rather the solubility of the enzyme, as well as the water concentration, strongly influences the equilibrium of esterification and hydrolysis. On the basis of these investigations, microgels of different polarity were prepared and successfully loaded with CaLB by physical entrapment. By comparison of immobilized and free CaLB, we demonstrated an effect of the hydrophobicity of the microenvironment of CaLB on its enzymatic activity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis)
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978 KiB  
Article
Highly Branched Bio-Based Unsaturated Polyesters by Enzymatic Polymerization
by Hiep Dinh Nguyen, David Löf, Søren Hvilsted and Anders Egede Daugaard
Polymers 2016, 8(10), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8100363 - 14 Oct 2016
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8098
Abstract
A one-pot, enzyme-catalyzed bulk polymerization method for direct production of highly branched polyesters has been developed as an alternative to currently used industrial procedures. Bio-based feed components in the form of glycerol, pentaerythritol, azelaic acid, and tall oil fatty acid (TOFA) were polymerized [...] Read more.
A one-pot, enzyme-catalyzed bulk polymerization method for direct production of highly branched polyesters has been developed as an alternative to currently used industrial procedures. Bio-based feed components in the form of glycerol, pentaerythritol, azelaic acid, and tall oil fatty acid (TOFA) were polymerized using an immobilized Candida antarctica lipase B (CALB) and the potential for an enzymatic synthesis of alkyds was investigated. The developed method enables the use of both glycerol and also pentaerythritol (for the first time) as the alcohol source and was found to be very robust. This allows simple variations in the molar mass and structure of the polyester without premature gelation, thus enabling easy tailoring of the branched polyester structure. The postpolymerization crosslinking of the polyesters illustrates their potential as binders in alkyds. The formed films had good UV stability, very high water contact angles of up to 141° and a glass transition temperature that could be controlled through the feed composition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis)
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4128 KiB  
Article
Chemo-Enzymatic Synthesis of Perfluoroalkyl-Functionalized Dendronized Polymers as Cyto-Compatible Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery Applications
by Badri Parshad, Meena Kumari, Katharina Achazi, Christoph Bӧttcher, Rainer Haag and Sunil K. Sharma
Polymers 2016, 8(8), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8080311 - 18 Aug 2016
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5862
Abstract
Among amphiphilic polymers with diverse skeletons, fluorinated architectures have attracted significant attention due to their unique property of segregation and self-assembly into discrete supramolecular entities. Herein, we have synthesized amphiphilic copolymers by grafting hydrophobic alkyl/perfluoroalkyl chains and hydrophilic polyglycerol [G2.0] dendrons onto a [...] Read more.
Among amphiphilic polymers with diverse skeletons, fluorinated architectures have attracted significant attention due to their unique property of segregation and self-assembly into discrete supramolecular entities. Herein, we have synthesized amphiphilic copolymers by grafting hydrophobic alkyl/perfluoroalkyl chains and hydrophilic polyglycerol [G2.0] dendrons onto a co-polymer scaffold, which itself was prepared by enzymatic polymerization of poly[ethylene glycol bis(carboxymethyl) ether]diethylester and 2-azidopropan-1,3-diol. The resulting fluorinated polymers and their alkyl chain analogs were then compared in terms of their supramolecular aggregation behavior, solubilization capacity, transport potential, and release profile using curcumin and dexamethasone drugs. The study of the release profile of encapsulated curcumin incubated with/without a hydrolase enzyme Candida antarctica lipase (CAL-B) suggested that the drug is better stabilized in perfluoroalkyl chain grafted polymeric nanostructures in the absence of enzyme for up to 12 days as compared to its alkyl chain analogs. Although both the fluorinated as well as non-fluorinated systems showed up to 90% release of curcumin in 12 days when incubated with lipase, a comparatively faster release was observed in the fluorinated polymers. Cell viability of HeLa cells up to 95% in aqueous solution of fluorinated polymers (100 μg/mL) demonstrated their excellent cyto-compatibility. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis)
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10704 KiB  
Article
Protein-Repellence PES Membranes Using Bio-grafting of Ortho-aminophenol
by Norhan Nady, Ahmed H. El-Shazly, Hesham M. A. Soliman and Sherif H. Kandil
Polymers 2016, 8(8), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8080306 - 15 Aug 2016
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5970
Abstract
Surface modification becomes an effective tool for improvement of both flux and selectivity of membrane by reducing the adsorption of the components of the fluid used onto its surface. A successful green modification of poly(ethersulfone) (PES) membranes using ortho-aminophenol (2-AP) modifier and laccase [...] Read more.
Surface modification becomes an effective tool for improvement of both flux and selectivity of membrane by reducing the adsorption of the components of the fluid used onto its surface. A successful green modification of poly(ethersulfone) (PES) membranes using ortho-aminophenol (2-AP) modifier and laccase enzyme biocatalyst under very flexible conditions is presented in this paper. The modified PES membranes were evaluated using many techniques including total color change, pure water flux, and protein repellence that were related to the gravimetric grafting yield. In addition, static water contact angle on laminated PES layers were determined. Blank and modified commercial membranes (surface and cross-section) and laminated PES layers (surface) were imaged by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and scanning probe microscope (SPM) to illustrate the formed modifying poly(2-aminophenol) layer(s). This green modification resulted in an improvement of both membrane flux and protein repellence, up to 15.4% and 81.27%, respectively, relative to the blank membrane. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis)
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1442 KiB  
Article
Polymerization of Various Lignins via Immobilized Myceliophthora thermophila Laccase (MtL)
by Daniela Huber, Alessandro Pellis, Andreas Daxbacher, Gibson S. Nyanhongo and Georg M. Guebitz
Polymers 2016, 8(8), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8080280 - 03 Aug 2016
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 5867
Abstract
Enzymatic polymerization of lignin is an environmentally-friendly and sustainable method that is investigated for its potential in opening-up new applications of one of the most abundant biopolymers on our planet. In this work, the laccase from Myceliophthora thermophila was successfully immobilized onto Accurel [...] Read more.
Enzymatic polymerization of lignin is an environmentally-friendly and sustainable method that is investigated for its potential in opening-up new applications of one of the most abundant biopolymers on our planet. In this work, the laccase from Myceliophthora thermophila was successfully immobilized onto Accurel MP1000 beads (67% of protein bound to the polymeric carrier) and the biocatalyzed oxidation of Kraft lignin (KL) and lignosulfonate (LS) were carried out. Fluorescence intensity determination, phenol content analysis and size exclusion chromatography were performed in order to elucidate the extent of the polymerization reaction. The collected results show an 8.5-fold decrease of the LS samples’ fluorescence intensity after laccase-mediated oxidation and a 12-fold increase of the weight average molecular weight was obtained. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis)
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2930 KiB  
Article
Design and Preparation of Nano-Lignin Peroxidase (NanoLiP) by Protein Block Copolymerization Approach
by Turgay Tay, Ender Köse, Rüstem Keçili and Rıdvan Say
Polymers 2016, 8(6), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8060223 - 06 Jun 2016
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6906
Abstract
This study describes the preparation of nanoprotein particles having lignin peroxidase (LiP) using a photosensitive microemulsion polymerization technique. The protein-based nano block polymer was synthesized by cross-linking of ligninase enzyme with ruthenium-based aminoacid monomers. This type polymerization process brought stability in different reaction [...] Read more.
This study describes the preparation of nanoprotein particles having lignin peroxidase (LiP) using a photosensitive microemulsion polymerization technique. The protein-based nano block polymer was synthesized by cross-linking of ligninase enzyme with ruthenium-based aminoacid monomers. This type polymerization process brought stability in different reaction conditions, reusability and functionality to the protein-based nano block polymer system when compared the traditional methods. After characterization of the prepared LiP copolymer nanoparticles, enzymatic activity studies of the nanoenzymes were carried out using tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) as the substrate. The parameters such as pH, temperature and initial enzyme concentration that affect the activity, were investigated by using prepared nanoLip particles and compared to free LiP. The reusability of the nano-LiP particles was also investigated and the obtained results showed that the nano-LiP particles exhibited admirable potential as a reusable catalyst. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis)
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2958 KiB  
Article
Papain-Catalyzed Synthesis of Polyglutamate Containing a Nylon Monomer Unit
by Kenjiro Yazawa and Keiji Numata
Polymers 2016, 8(5), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8050194 - 13 May 2016
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 9429
Abstract
Peptides have the potential to serve as an alternative for petroleum-based polymers to support a sustainable society. However, they lack thermoplasticity, owing to their strong intermolecular interactions. In contrast, nylon is famous for its thermoplasticity and chemical resistance. Here, we synthesized peptides containing [...] Read more.
Peptides have the potential to serve as an alternative for petroleum-based polymers to support a sustainable society. However, they lack thermoplasticity, owing to their strong intermolecular interactions. In contrast, nylon is famous for its thermoplasticity and chemical resistance. Here, we synthesized peptides containing a nylon unit to modify their thermal properties by using papain-catalyzed chemoenzymatic polymerization. We used l-glutamic acid alkyl ester as the amino acid monomer and nylon 1, 3, 4, and 6 alkyl esters as the nylon unit. Papain catalyzed the copolymerization of glutamic acid with nylon 3, 4, and 6 alkyl esters, whereas the nylon 1 unit could not be copolymerized. Other proteases used in this study, namely, bromelain, proteinase K, and Candida antarctica lipase (CALB), were not able to copolymerize with any nylon units. The broad substrate specificity of papain enabled the copolymerization of l-glutamic acid with a nylon unit. The peptides with nylon units demonstrated different thermal profiles from that of oligo(l-glutamic acid). Therefore, the resultant peptides with various nylon units are expected to form fewer intermolecular hydrogen bonds, thus altering their thermal properties. This finding is expected to broaden the applications of peptide materials and chemoenzymatic polymerization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis)
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1166 KiB  
Article
Enzyme-Catalyzed Synthesis of Water-Soluble Conjugated Poly[2-(3-thienyl)-Ethoxy-4-Butylsulfonate]
by Yun Zhao, Hongyan Zhu, Xinyang Wang, Yingying Liu, Xiang Wu, Heyuan Zhou and Zhonghai Ni
Polymers 2016, 8(4), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8040139 - 13 Apr 2016
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6108
Abstract
An environmentally friendly water-soluble conjugated polythiophene poly[2-(3-thienyl)-ethoxy-4-butylsulfonate] (PTEBS) has been found to be effective for making hybrid solar cells. In this work, we first report the enzyme-catalyzed polymerization of (3-thienyl)-ethoxy-4-butylsulfonate (TEBS) using horseradish peroxidase (HRP) enzyme as a catalyst and hydrogen peroxide (H [...] Read more.
An environmentally friendly water-soluble conjugated polythiophene poly[2-(3-thienyl)-ethoxy-4-butylsulfonate] (PTEBS) has been found to be effective for making hybrid solar cells. In this work, we first report the enzyme-catalyzed polymerization of (3-thienyl)-ethoxy-4-butylsulfonate (TEBS) using horseradish peroxidase (HRP) enzyme as a catalyst and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as an oxidant in an aqueous buffer. This enzyme-catalyzed polymerization is a “green synthesis process” for the synthesis of water-soluble conjugated PTEBS, the benefits of which include a simple setting, high yields, and an environmentally friendly route. Fourier transform infrared spectra (FTIR) and UV–Vis absorption spectra confirm the successful enzyme-catalyzed polymerization of TEBS. The thermo gravimetric (TG) data show the obtained PTEBS is stable over a fairly high range of temperatures. The present PTEBS has a good solubility in water and ethanol, and photoluminescence quenching of PTEBS/titanium dioxide (TiO2) composite implies that the excitons dissociate and separate successfully at the interface of PTEBS and TiO2, which help to build solar cells using green processing methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis)
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Review

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11979 KiB  
Review
Enzymatic Synthesis of Biobased Polyesters and Polyamides
by Yi Jiang and Katja Loos
Polymers 2016, 8(7), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8070243 - 25 Jun 2016
Cited by 171 | Viewed by 39249
Abstract
Nowadays, “green” is a hot topic almost everywhere, from retailers to universities to industries; and achieving a green status has become a universal aim. However, polymers are commonly considered not to be “green”, being associated with massive energy consumption and severe pollution problems [...] Read more.
Nowadays, “green” is a hot topic almost everywhere, from retailers to universities to industries; and achieving a green status has become a universal aim. However, polymers are commonly considered not to be “green”, being associated with massive energy consumption and severe pollution problems (for example, the “Plastic Soup”) as a public stereotype. To achieve green polymers, three elements should be entailed: (1) green raw materials, catalysts and solvents; (2) eco-friendly synthesis processes; and (3) sustainable polymers with a low carbon footprint, for example, (bio)degradable polymers or polymers which can be recycled or disposed with a gentle environmental impact. By utilizing biobased monomers in enzymatic polymerizations, many advantageous green aspects can be fulfilled. For example, biobased monomers and enzyme catalysts are renewable materials that are derived from biomass feedstocks; enzymatic polymerizations are clean and energy saving processes; and no toxic residuals contaminate the final products. Therefore, synthesis of renewable polymers via enzymatic polymerizations of biobased monomers provides an opportunity for achieving green polymers and a future sustainable polymer industry, which will eventually play an essential role for realizing and maintaining a biobased and sustainable society. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis)
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4910 KiB  
Review
Precision Synthesis of Functional Polysaccharide Materials by Phosphorylase-Catalyzed Enzymatic Reactions
by Jun-ichi Kadokawa
Polymers 2016, 8(4), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym8040138 - 11 Apr 2016
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 9720
Abstract
In this review article, the precise synthesis of functional polysaccharide materials using phosphorylase-catalyzed enzymatic reactions is presented. This particular enzymatic approach has been identified as a powerful tool in preparing well-defined polysaccharide materials. Phosphorylase is an enzyme that has been employed in the [...] Read more.
In this review article, the precise synthesis of functional polysaccharide materials using phosphorylase-catalyzed enzymatic reactions is presented. This particular enzymatic approach has been identified as a powerful tool in preparing well-defined polysaccharide materials. Phosphorylase is an enzyme that has been employed in the synthesis of pure amylose with a precisely controlled structure. Similarly, using a phosphorylase-catalyzed enzymatic polymerization, the chemoenzymatic synthesis of amylose-grafted heteropolysaccharides containing different main-chain polysaccharide structures (e.g., chitin/chitosan, cellulose, alginate, xanthan gum, and carboxymethyl cellulose) was achieved. Amylose-based block, star, and branched polymeric materials have also been prepared using this enzymatic polymerization. Since phosphorylase shows a loose specificity for the recognition of substrates, different sugar residues have been introduced to the non-reducing ends of maltooligosaccharides by phosphorylase-catalyzed glycosylations using analog substrates such as α-d-glucuronic acid and α-d-glucosamine 1-phosphates. By means of such reactions, an amphoteric glycogen and its corresponding hydrogel were successfully prepared. Thermostable phosphorylase was able to tolerate a greater variance in the substrate structures with respect to recognition than potato phosphorylase, and as a result, the enzymatic polymerization of α-d-glucosamine 1-phosphate to produce a chitosan stereoisomer was carried out using this enzyme catalyst, which was then subsequently converted to the chitin stereoisomer by N-acetylation. Amylose supramolecular inclusion complexes with polymeric guests were obtained when the phosphorylase-catalyzed enzymatic polymerization was conducted in the presence of the guest polymers. Since the structure of this polymeric system is similar to the way that a plant vine twines around a rod, this polymerization system has been named “vine-twining polymerization”. Through this approach, amylose supramolecular network materials were fabricated using designed graft copolymers. Furthermore, supramolecular inclusion polymers were formed by vine-twining polymerization using primer–guest conjugates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enzymatic Polymer Synthesis)
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