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Energies, Volume 8, Issue 9 (September 2015) – 78 articles , Pages 9009-10557

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743 KiB  
Article
A Comparison of Household Carbon Emission Patterns of Urban and Rural China over the 17 Year Period (1995–2011)
by Jiansheng Qu, Tek Maraseni, Lina Liu, Zhiqiang Zhang and Talal Yusaf
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10537-10557; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910537 - 22 Sep 2015
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6162
Abstract
The household sector consumes a large amount of goods and services and is therefore a major source of global carbon emissions. This study aims to analyze per person household carbon emission (HCEs) patterns of urban and rural China over the period from 1995 [...] Read more.
The household sector consumes a large amount of goods and services and is therefore a major source of global carbon emissions. This study aims to analyze per person household carbon emission (HCEs) patterns of urban and rural China over the period from 1995 to 2011. Annual macroeconomic data for the study were obtained from authentic Chinese government sources. Direct HCE estimates for each fossil fuel were obtained using the IPCC’s reference approach, and indirect HCEs were calculated by input-output analysis. In 1995, per person HCEs from direct sources for urban and rural China were 0.50 tCO2 and 0.22 tCO2, respectively; by 2011, these values had increased to 0.60 tCO2 and 0.61 tCO2, an increase of 20% and 177.27%, respectively. Similarly, in 1995, per person HCEs from indirect sources for urban and rural China were 0.43 tCO2 and 0.16 tCO2, respectively; by 2011, these values had increased to 1.77 tCO2 and 0.53 tCO2, respectively, an increase of 306% and 235%. The reasons for these differences and the sets of policies required to rectify increasing emissions are discussed. If current trends and practices continue, with a RMB1000 increase in per capita income from 2011 levels, per person HCEs in urban and rural China will increase by 0.119 tCO2 and 0.197 tCO2, respectively. This result indicates that the sector of society which is most vulnerable will contribute most to China’s increasing HCEs. Therefore, while developing energy consumption and emissions reduction policies and programs, principles of fairness and equity need to be followed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy for Agriculture)
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446 KiB  
Article
Classification of Household Appliance Operation Cycles: A Case-Study Approach
by Zeyu Wang and Ravi S. Srinivasan
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10522-10536; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910522 - 22 Sep 2015
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5316
Abstract
In recent years, a new generation of power grid system, referred to as the Smart Grid, with an aim of managing electricity demand in a sustainable, reliable, and economical manner has emerged. With greater knowledge of operational characteristics of individual appliances, necessary automation [...] Read more.
In recent years, a new generation of power grid system, referred to as the Smart Grid, with an aim of managing electricity demand in a sustainable, reliable, and economical manner has emerged. With greater knowledge of operational characteristics of individual appliances, necessary automation control strategies can be developed in the Smart Grid to operate appliances in an efficient manner. This paper provides a way of classifying different operational cycles of a household appliance by introducing an unsupervised learning algorithm called k-means clustering. An intrinsic method known as silhouette coefficient was used to measure the classification quality. An identification process is also discussed in this paper to help users identify the operation mode each types of operation cycle stands for. A case study using a typical household refrigerator is presented to validate the proposed method. Results show that the proposed the classification and identification method can partition and identify different operation cycles adequately. Classification of operation cycles for such appliances is beneficial for Smart Grid as it provides a clear and convincing understanding of the operation modes for effective power management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficient Building Design 2016)
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525 KiB  
Article
Optimal Energy Reduction Schedules for Ice Storage Air-Conditioning Systems
by Whei-Min Lin, Chia-Sheng Tu, Ming-Tang Tsai and Chi-Chun Lo
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10504-10521; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910504 - 22 Sep 2015
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5178
Abstract
This paper proposes a hybrid algorithm to solve the optimal energy dispatch of an ice storage air-conditioning system. Based on a real air-conditioning system, the data, including the return temperature of chilled water, the supply temperature of chilled water, the return temperature of [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a hybrid algorithm to solve the optimal energy dispatch of an ice storage air-conditioning system. Based on a real air-conditioning system, the data, including the return temperature of chilled water, the supply temperature of chilled water, the return temperature of ice storage water, and the supply temperature of ice storage water, are measured. The least-squares regression (LSR) is used to obtain the input-output (I/O) curve for the cooling load and power consumption of chillers and ice storage tank. The objective is to minimize overall cost in a daily schedule while satisfying all constraints, including cooling loading under the time-of-use (TOU) rate. Based on the Radial Basis Function Network (RBFN) and Ant Colony Optimization, an Ant-Based Radial Basis Function Network (ARBFN) is constructed in the searching process. Simulation results indicate that reasonable solutions provide a practical and flexible framework allowing the economic dispatch of ice storage air-conditioning systems, and offering greater energy efficiency in dispatching chillers. Full article
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457 KiB  
Article
Eicosapentaenoic Acid from Porphyridium Cruentum: Increasing Growth and Productivity of Microalgae for Pharmaceutical Products
by Maryam Asgharpour, Brigitte Rodgers and Jamie A. Hestekin
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10487-10503; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910487 - 22 Sep 2015
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 8494
Abstract
An alternative source of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or omega-3 could be microalgae lipids instead of fish oils. However, EPA and lipid contents extracted from microalgae vary at different growth conditions. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to optimize the growth conditions of microalgae [...] Read more.
An alternative source of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or omega-3 could be microalgae lipids instead of fish oils. However, EPA and lipid contents extracted from microalgae vary at different growth conditions. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to optimize the growth conditions of microalgae to maximize EPA production. In this paper, the effects of temperature (16 °C and 20 °C), light intensity (140 µE m−2 s−1 and 180 µE m−2 s−1) and nitrate level (0.075, 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7 g/L) on the cell growth, lipid productivity, and omega-6/omega-3 ratio of Porphyridium cruentum, one of the most promising oil-rich species of microalgae, are investigated. The ratio of the fatty acids with omega-6 and omega-3 groups at various growth conditions were compared, since an appropriate proportion of ω-6 (arachidonic acid (ARA)) to ω-3 (EPA) is vital for healthy nutrition. Lower EPA production and consequently a higher ARA/EPA ratio occurred when 5% CO2/air was utilized as CO2 supplementation compared to pure CO2. The highest EPA (13.08% (w/w) of total fatty acids) and biomass productivity (143 mg L−1 day−1) was achieved at 140 µE m−2 s−1, 20 °C, and 0.3 g/L nitrate, while lipid content was the lowest (0.5% w/w) at this condition. The optimal condition with minimum ARA/EPA ratio (2.5) was identified at 20 °C, 140 µE m−2 s−1, and 0.5 g/L nitrate concentration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioenergy and Biorefining)
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515 KiB  
Article
Explanatory Information Analysis for Day-Ahead Price Forecasting in the Iberian Electricity Market
by Claudio Monteiro, L. Alfredo Fernandez-Jimenez and Ignacio J. Ramirez-Rosado
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10464-10486; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910464 - 22 Sep 2015
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5817
Abstract
This paper presents the analysis of the importance of a set of explanatory (input) variables for the day-ahead price forecast in the Iberian Electricity Market (MIBEL). The available input variables include extensive hourly time series records of weather forecasts, previous prices, and regional [...] Read more.
This paper presents the analysis of the importance of a set of explanatory (input) variables for the day-ahead price forecast in the Iberian Electricity Market (MIBEL). The available input variables include extensive hourly time series records of weather forecasts, previous prices, and regional aggregation of power generations and power demands. The paper presents the comparisons of the forecasting results achieved with a model which includes all these available input variables (EMPF model) with respect to those obtained by other forecasting models containing a reduced set of input variables. These comparisons identify the most important variables for forecasting purposes. In addition, a novel Reference Explanatory Model for Price Estimations (REMPE) that achieves hourly price estimations by using actual power generations and power demands of such day is described in the paper, which offers the lowest limit for the forecasting error of the EMPF model. All the models have been implemented using the same technique (artificial neural networks) and have been satisfactorily applied to the real-world case study of the Iberian Electricity Market (MIBEL). The relative importance of each explanatory variable is identified for the day-ahead price forecasts in the MIBEL. The comparisons also allow outlining guidelines of the value of the different types of input information. Full article
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968 KiB  
Review
A Critical Review of Mineral Matter Related Issues during Gasification of Coal in Fixed, Fluidized, and Entrained Flow Gasifiers
by Vijayaragavan Krishnamoorthy and Sarma V. Pisupati
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10430-10463; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910430 - 22 Sep 2015
Cited by 77 | Viewed by 13015
Abstract
Gasification of coal is gaining more popularity due to its clean operation, and its ability to generate products for various markets. However, these technologies are not widely commercialized due to reliability and economic issues. Mineral matter in coal plays an important role in [...] Read more.
Gasification of coal is gaining more popularity due to its clean operation, and its ability to generate products for various markets. However, these technologies are not widely commercialized due to reliability and economic issues. Mineral matter in coal plays an important role in affecting the availability/reliability of a gasifier. Agglomeration in the bed, slag mobility and blockage of the syngas exit section are some of the operations related concerns in fixed-bed gasifiers, while ash deposition and sudden defluidization are the major concerns in fluidized bed gasifiers. In the case of entrained flow gasifiers, syngas cooler fouling and blockage, corrosion and erosion of refractory, and slag mobility are some of the major issues affecting the operations and the reliability of the gasifier. This review is aimed at critically examining various mineral matter related issues contributing to the operation and reliability problems in three types of generic gasifiers (fixed bed, fluidized bed and entrained flow gasifiers). Based on the review, some strategies to counter the potential mineral matter related issues are presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Coal Combustion and Gasification)
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1412 KiB  
Article
Increasing Fuel Efficiency of Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Systems with Feedforward Control of the Operating Concentration
by Youngseung Na, Federico Zenith and Ulrike Krewer
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10409-10429; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910409 - 21 Sep 2015
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7803
Abstract
Most of the R&D on fuel cells for portable applications concentrates on increasing efficiencies and energy densities to compete with other energy storage devices, especially batteries. To improve the efficiency of direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) systems, several modifications to system layouts and [...] Read more.
Most of the R&D on fuel cells for portable applications concentrates on increasing efficiencies and energy densities to compete with other energy storage devices, especially batteries. To improve the efficiency of direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) systems, several modifications to system layouts and operating strategies are considered in this paper, rather than modifications to the fuel cell itself. Two modified DMFC systems are presented, one with an additional inline mixer and a further modification of it with a separate tank to recover condensed water. The set point for methanol concentration control in the solution is determined by fuel efficiency and varies with the current and other process variables. Feedforward concentration control enables variable concentration for dynamic loads. Simulation results were validated experimentally with fuel cell systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Methanol and Alcohol Fuel Cells)
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557 KiB  
Article
Real-Time Control of Active and Reactive Power for Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)-Based Wind Energy Conversion System
by Aman Abdulla Tanvir, Adel Merabet and Rachid Beguenane
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10389-10408; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910389 - 21 Sep 2015
Cited by 59 | Viewed by 8258
Abstract
This paper presents the modeling, rapid control prototyping, and hardware-in-the-loop testing for real-time simulation and control of a grid-connected doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) in a laboratory-size wind turbine emulator for wind energy conversation systems. The generator is modeled using the direct-quadrature rotating [...] Read more.
This paper presents the modeling, rapid control prototyping, and hardware-in-the-loop testing for real-time simulation and control of a grid-connected doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) in a laboratory-size wind turbine emulator for wind energy conversation systems. The generator is modeled using the direct-quadrature rotating reference frame circuit along with the aligned stator flux, and the field-oriented control approach is applied for independent control of the active and reactive power and the DC-link voltage at the grid side. The control of the active, reactive power and the DC-link voltage are performed using a back-to-back converter at sub- and super-synchronous as well as at variable speeds. The control strategy is experimentally validated on an emulated wind turbine driven by the Opal-RT real-time simulator (OP5600) for simultaneous control of the DC-link voltage, active and reactive power. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wind Turbines)
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2260 KiB  
Article
Assessment of the Wave Energy in the Black Sea Based on a 15-Year Hindcast with Data Assimilation
by Liliana Rusu
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10370-10388; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910370 - 21 Sep 2015
Cited by 61 | Viewed by 6872
Abstract
The principal target of the present work is to assess the wave energy potential in the Black Sea, identifying also some relevant energetic features and possible patterns. A wave prediction system based on the Simulating Waves Nearshore model (SWAN) has been implemented and [...] Read more.
The principal target of the present work is to assess the wave energy potential in the Black Sea, identifying also some relevant energetic features and possible patterns. A wave prediction system based on the Simulating Waves Nearshore model (SWAN) has been implemented and intensively tested in the entire sea basin. Moreover, considering an optimal interpolation technique, an assimilation scheme of the satellite data has been developed, leading to a visible improvement of the wave model predictions in terms of significant wave heights and, consequently, also in terms of wave power. Using this wave prediction system with data assimilation, simulations have been performed for a 15-year period (1999–2013). Considering the results of this 15-year wave hindcast, an analysis of the wave energy conditions in the basin of the Black Sea has been carried out. This provided a more comprehensive picture concerning the wave energy patterns in the coastal environment of the Black Sea focused on the average wave conditions that might be expected in this sea. Following the results presented, it can be concluded that the wave energy extraction in the Black Sea can become an issue of interest, especially from the perspective of the hybrid solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tools and Techniques for Economic Delivery of Ocean Energy)
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1288 KiB  
Article
Design of an Extractive Distillation Column for the Environmentally Benign Separation of Zirconium and Hafnium Tetrachloride for Nuclear Power Reactor Applications
by Le Quang Minh, Nguyen Van Duc Long, Pham Luu Trung Duong, Youngmi Jung, Alireza Bahadori and Moonyong Lee
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10354-10369; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910354 - 21 Sep 2015
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 8638
Abstract
Nuclear power with strengthened safety regulations continues to be used as an important resource in the world for managing atmospheric greenhouse gases and associated climate change. This study examined the environmentally benign separation of zirconium tetrachloride (ZrCl4) and hafnium tetrachloride (HfCl [...] Read more.
Nuclear power with strengthened safety regulations continues to be used as an important resource in the world for managing atmospheric greenhouse gases and associated climate change. This study examined the environmentally benign separation of zirconium tetrachloride (ZrCl4) and hafnium tetrachloride (HfCl4) for nuclear power reactor applications through extractive distillation using a NaCl-KCl molten salt mixture. The vapor–liquid equilibrium behavior of ZrCl4 and HfCl4 over the molten salt system was correlated with Raoult’s law. The molten salt-based extractive distillation column was designed optimally using a rigorous commercial simulator for the feasible separation of ZrCl4 and HfCl4. The molten salt-based extractive distillation approach has many potential advantages for the commercial separation of ZrCl4 and HfCl4 compared to the conventional distillation because of its milder temperatures and pressure conditions, smaller number of required separation trays in the column, and lower energy requirement for separation, while still taking the advantage of environmentally benign feature by distillation. A heat-pump-assisted configuration was also explored to improve the energy efficiency of the extractive distillation process. The proposed enhanced configuration reduced the energy requirement drastically. Extractive distillation can be a promising option competing with the existing extraction-based separation process for zirconium purification for nuclear power reactor applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Future of Nuclear Power)
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5088 KiB  
Article
Control and Performance Evaluation of Multiphase FSPM Motor in Low-Speed Region for Hybrid Electric Vehicles
by Feng Yu, Ming Cheng, Kwok Tong Chau and Feng Li
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10335-10353; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910335 - 21 Sep 2015
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7497
Abstract
The flux-switching permanent-magnet (FSPM) motor has been viewed as a highly reliable machine with both armature windings and magnets on the stator. Owing to the high torque-production capability with low torque ripple, FSPM motors with a higher number of phases are potential candidates [...] Read more.
The flux-switching permanent-magnet (FSPM) motor has been viewed as a highly reliable machine with both armature windings and magnets on the stator. Owing to the high torque-production capability with low torque ripple, FSPM motors with a higher number of phases are potential candidates for traction applications in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). However, existing research has mostly focused on the principles and static performance of multiphase FSPM motors, and little attention has been paid to advanced control strategies. In this paper, the fully decoupled current control of a 36/34-pole nine-phase FSPM (NP-FSPM) motor is developed and the performance under different operating conditions is investigated. The aim of the design is to alleviate cross coupling effects and unwanted low-order stator harmonic currents, to guarantee fast transient response and small steady-state error. In addition, its fault-tolerance is further elaborated. These features are very important in automotive applications where low torque pulsation, high fault-tolerant capability and high dynamic performance are of major importance. Firstly, the research status of multiphase FSPM motors is briefly reviewed. Secondly, the mathematical model in the dq reference frames and control strategies are presented. Then, the control and performance of the NP-FSPM motor are evaluated by using MATLAB/Simulink. Finally, experiments on an NP-FSPM motor prototype are carried out to validate the study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles and Hybrid Vehicles)
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2356 KiB  
Article
Inductive-Based Wireless Power Recharging System for an Innovative Endoscopic Capsule
by Giuseppe Tortora, Francesca Mulana, Gastone Ciuti, Paolo Dario and Arianna Menciassi
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10315-10334; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910315 - 21 Sep 2015
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7422
Abstract
Wireless capsule endoscopic devices are adopted for painless diagnosis of cancer and other diseases affecting the gastrointestinal tract as an alternative to traditional endoscopy. Although much work has been done to improve capsule performance in terms of active navigation, a major drawback is [...] Read more.
Wireless capsule endoscopic devices are adopted for painless diagnosis of cancer and other diseases affecting the gastrointestinal tract as an alternative to traditional endoscopy. Although much work has been done to improve capsule performance in terms of active navigation, a major drawback is the limited available energy on board the capsule, usually provided by a battery. Another key shortcoming of active capsules is their limitation in terms of active functionalities and related costs. An inductive-based wireless recharging system for the development of an innovative capsule for colonoscopy is proposed in this paper; the aim is to provide fast off-line battery recovery for improving capsule lifecycle and thus reducing the cost of a single endoscopic procedure. The wireless recharging system has been properly designed to fit the dimensions of a capsule for colonoscopy but it can be applied to any biomedical devices to increase the number of times it can be used after proper sterilization. The current system is able to provide about 1 W power and is able to recharge the battery capsule in 20 min which is a reasonable time considering capsule operation time (10–15 min). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wireless Power Transfer)
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375 KiB  
Article
An Advanced Bayesian Method for Short-Term Probabilistic Forecasting of the Generation of Wind Power
by Antonio Bracale and Pasquale De Falco
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10293-10314; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910293 - 21 Sep 2015
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4991
Abstract
Currently, among renewable distributed generation systems, wind generators are receiving a great deal of interest due to the great economic, technological, and environmental incentives they involve. However, the uncertainties due to the intermittent nature of wind energy make it difficult to operate electrical [...] Read more.
Currently, among renewable distributed generation systems, wind generators are receiving a great deal of interest due to the great economic, technological, and environmental incentives they involve. However, the uncertainties due to the intermittent nature of wind energy make it difficult to operate electrical power systems optimally and make decisions that satisfy the needs of all the stakeholders of the electricity energy market. Thus, there is increasing interest determining how to forecast wind power production accurately. Most the methods that have been published in the relevant literature provided deterministic forecasts even though great interest has been focused recently on probabilistic forecast methods. In this paper, an advanced probabilistic method is proposed for short-term forecasting of wind power production. A mixture of two Weibull distributions was used as a probability function to model the uncertainties associated with wind speed. Then, a Bayesian inference approach with a particularly-effective, autoregressive, integrated, moving-average model was used to determine the parameters of the mixture Weibull distribution. Numerical applications also are presented to provide evidence of the forecasting performance of the Bayesian-based approach. Full article
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2705 KiB  
Article
Determination of Priority Study Areas for Coupling CO2 Storage and CH4 Gas Hydrates Recovery in the Portuguese Offshore Area
by Luís Bernardes, Júlio Carneiro, Pedro Madureira, Filipe Brandão and Cristina Roque
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10276-10292; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910276 - 18 Sep 2015
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5483
Abstract
Gas hydrates in sub-seabed sediments is an unexploited source of energy with estimated reserves larger than those of conventional oil. One of the methods for recovering methane from gas hydrates involves injection of Carbon Dioxide (CO2), causing the dissociation of methane and storing [...] Read more.
Gas hydrates in sub-seabed sediments is an unexploited source of energy with estimated reserves larger than those of conventional oil. One of the methods for recovering methane from gas hydrates involves injection of Carbon Dioxide (CO2), causing the dissociation of methane and storing CO2. The occurrence of gas hydrates offshore Portugal is well known associated to mud volcanoes in the Gulf of Cadiz. This article presents a determination of the areas with conditions for the formation of biogenic gas hydrates in Portugal’s mainland geological continental margin and assesses their overlap with CO2 hydrates stability zones defined in previous studies. The gas hydrates stability areas are defined using a transfer function recently published by other authors and takes into account the sedimentation rate, the particulate organic carbon content and the thickness of the gas hydrate stability zone. An equilibrium equation for gas hydrates, function of temperature and pressure, was adjusted using non-linear regression and the maximum stability zone thickness was found to be 798 m. The gas hydrates inventory was conducted in a Geographic Information System (GIS) environment and a full compaction scenario was adopted, with localized vertical flow assumed in the accrecionary wedge where mud volcanoes occur. Four areas where temperature and pressure conditions may exist for formation of gas hydrates were defined at an average of 60 km from Portugal’s mainland coastline. Two of those areas coincide with CO2 hydrates stability areas previously defined and should be the subject of further research to evaluate the occurrence of gas hydrate and the possibility of its recovery coupled with CO2 storage in sub-seabed sediments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Policy and Climate Change)
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1093 KiB  
Article
A Mathematical Model and Its Application for Hydro Power Units under Different Operating Conditions
by Weijia Yang, Jiandong Yang, Wencheng Guo, Wei Zeng, Chao Wang, Linn Saarinen and Per Norrlund
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10260-10275; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910260 - 17 Sep 2015
Cited by 80 | Viewed by 10872 | Correction
Abstract
This paper presents a mathematical model of hydro power units, especially the governor system model for different operating conditions, based on the basic version of the software TOPSYS. The mathematical model consists of eight turbine equations, one generator equation, and one governor equation, [...] Read more.
This paper presents a mathematical model of hydro power units, especially the governor system model for different operating conditions, based on the basic version of the software TOPSYS. The mathematical model consists of eight turbine equations, one generator equation, and one governor equation, which are solved for ten unknown variables. The generator and governor equations, which are different under various operating conditions, are presented and discussed in detail. All the essential non-linear factors in the governor system (dead-zone, saturation, rate limiting, and backlash) are also considered. Case studies are conducted based on one Swedish hydro power plant (HPP) and three Chinese plants. The simulation and on-site measurements are compared for start-up, no-load operation, normal operation, and load rejection in different control modes (frequency, opening, and power feedback). The main error in each simulation is also discussed in detail. As a result, the model application is proved trustworthy for simulating different physical quantities of the unit (e.g., guide vane opening, active power, rotation speed, and pressures at volute and draft tube). The model has already been applied effectively in consultant analyses and scientific studies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydropower)
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1572 KiB  
Article
Data-Driven Baseline Estimation of Residential Buildings for Demand Response
by Saehong Park, Seunghyoung Ryu, Yohwan Choi, Jihyo Kim and Hongseok Kim
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10239-10259; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910239 - 17 Sep 2015
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 6544
Abstract
The advent of advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) generates a large volume of data related with energy service. This paper exploits data mining approach for customer baseline load (CBL) estimation in demand response (DR) management. CBL plays a significant role in measurement and verification [...] Read more.
The advent of advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) generates a large volume of data related with energy service. This paper exploits data mining approach for customer baseline load (CBL) estimation in demand response (DR) management. CBL plays a significant role in measurement and verification process, which quantifies the amount of demand reduction and authenticates the performance. The proposed data-driven baseline modeling is based on the unsupervised learning technique. Specifically we leverage both the self organizing map (SOM) and K-means clustering for accurate estimation. This two-level approach efficiently reduces the large data set into representative weight vectors in SOM, and then these weight vectors are clustered by K-means clustering to find the load pattern that would be similar to the potential load pattern of the DR event day. To verify the proposed method, we conduct nationwide scale experiments where three major cities’ residential consumption is monitored by smart meters. Our evaluation compares the proposed solution with the various types of day matching techniques, showing that our approach outperforms the existing methods by up to a 68.5% lower error rate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Decentralized Management of Energy Streams in Smart Grids)
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1371 KiB  
Article
A New Application of the Multi-Resonant Zero-Current Switching Buck Converter: Analysis and Simulation in a PMSG Based WECS
by Tiara Freitas, Paulo Menegáz and Domingos Simonetti
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10219-10238; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910219 - 17 Sep 2015
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5774
Abstract
A new application of the three-phase buck-resonant converter is presented in this paper. It is shown that the analyzed converter is suitable to operate as the rectifier stage in low power wind energy conversion systems (WECS) based on permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG) [...] Read more.
A new application of the three-phase buck-resonant converter is presented in this paper. It is shown that the analyzed converter is suitable to operate as the rectifier stage in low power wind energy conversion systems (WECS) based on permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG) with variable wind speed. As main features, it presents a single controlled switch, simple implementation and control, and operates with a high power factor and low harmonic distortion over all wind speed ranges. The converter topology, its design equations and its operation are presented, as well as the simulation results of the PMSG based conversion system. From the analysis carried out in the paper it is concluded that the converter is indicated to be employed in distributed generation and hybrid systems where wind generation is associated with other sources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wind Turbine 2015)
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4076 KiB  
Article
Effects of Buffer Gas Composition on Autoignition of Dimethyl Ether
by Zhicheng Shi, Hongguang Zhang, Hao Liu, Haitao Lu, Jiazheng Li and Xiang Gao
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10198-10218; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910198 - 17 Sep 2015
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5147
Abstract
Experimental and numerical studies are conducted on the thermal, chemical and dilution effects of buffer gas composition on autoignition of dimethyl ether (DME). The buffer gases considered are nitrogen (N2), a mixture of N2 and argon (Ar) at a mole [...] Read more.
Experimental and numerical studies are conducted on the thermal, chemical and dilution effects of buffer gas composition on autoignition of dimethyl ether (DME). The buffer gases considered are nitrogen (N2), a mixture of N2 and argon (Ar) at a mole ratio of 50%/50% and a mixture of Ar and carbon dioxide (CO2) at a mole ratio of 61.2%/38.8%. Experiments are performed using a rapid compression machine (RCM) at compressed pressure of 10 bar, equivalence ratio (φ) of 1, and compressed temperature from 670 K to 795 K. The N2 dilution ratio considered ranges from 36.31% to 55.04%. The experimental results show that buffer gas composition has little impact on the first-stage ignition delay. However, significant differences in the total ignition delay as a function of buffer gas composition are observed in the negative temperature coefficient (NTC) region. Compared to N2, N2/Ar (50%/50%) mixture decreases the total ignition delay by 31%. The chemical effects of buffer gas composition on the first-stage and total ignition delays are negligible. With increasing N2 dilution ratio, the first-stage ignition delay slightly increases, while a significant increase in the total ignition delay is observed. Moreover, the NTC behavior of total ignition delay is noted to become more pronounced at high N2 dilution ratio. The heat release during the first-stage ignition decreases as N2 dilution ratio increases. Results of numerical simulations with the Zhao DME mechanism over a wider range of temperature show good agreement with that of experiments. Further numerical simulations are conducted using pure N2, Ar and CO2 as buffer gases. Results indicate that the thermal effects are the dominant factor in low temperature and NTC regions. The chemical effects become pronounced in the NTC region, and the chemical effect of CO2 exceeds the thermal effect at the compressed temperature higher than 880 K. Full article
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2351 KiB  
Article
Effective Local-Global Upscaling of Fractured Reservoirs under Discrete Fractured Discretization
by Junchao Li, Zhengdong Lei, Guan Qin and Bin Gong
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10178-10197; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910178 - 17 Sep 2015
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6301
Abstract
The subsurface flow in fractured reservoirs is strongly affected by the distribution of fracture networks. Discrete fracture models, which represent all fractures individually by unstructured grid systems, are thus developed and act as a more accurate way for fractured reservoir simulation. However, it [...] Read more.
The subsurface flow in fractured reservoirs is strongly affected by the distribution of fracture networks. Discrete fracture models, which represent all fractures individually by unstructured grid systems, are thus developed and act as a more accurate way for fractured reservoir simulation. However, it is usually not realistic to directly apply discrete fracture models to simulate field scale models for efficiency reasons. There is a need for upscaling techniques to coarsen the high resolution fracture descriptions to sizes that can be accommodated by reservoir simulators. In this paper, we extended the adaptive local-global upscaling technique to construct a transmissibility-based dual-porosity dual-permeability model from discrete fracture characterizations. An underlying unstructured fine-scale grid is firstly generated as a base grid. A global coarse-scale simulation is performed to provide boundary conditions for local regions and local upscaling procedures are carried out in every local region for transmissibility calculations. Iterations are performed until the consistency between the global and local properties is achieved. The procedure is applied to provide dual-porosity dual-permeability (DPDK) parameters including coarse-scale matrix-matrix, fracture-fracture and matrix-fracture flux transmissibilities. The methodology is applied to several cases. The simulation results demonstrate the accuracy, efficiency and robustness of the proposed method. Full article
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1081 KiB  
Review
Theoretical Modelling Methods for Thermal Management of Batteries
by Bahman Shabani and Manu Biju
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10153-10177; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910153 - 17 Sep 2015
Cited by 99 | Viewed by 10604
Abstract
The main challenge associated with renewable energy generation is the intermittency of the renewable source of power. Because of this, back-up generation sources fuelled by fossil fuels are required. In stationary applications whether it is a back-up diesel generator or connection to the [...] Read more.
The main challenge associated with renewable energy generation is the intermittency of the renewable source of power. Because of this, back-up generation sources fuelled by fossil fuels are required. In stationary applications whether it is a back-up diesel generator or connection to the grid, these systems are yet to be truly emissions-free. One solution to the problem is the utilisation of electrochemical energy storage systems (ESS) to store the excess renewable energy and then reusing this energy when the renewable energy source is insufficient to meet the demand. The performance of an ESS amongst other things is affected by the design, materials used and the operating temperature of the system. The operating temperature is critical since operating an ESS at low ambient temperatures affects its capacity and charge acceptance while operating the ESS at high ambient temperatures affects its lifetime and suggests safety risks. Safety risks are magnified in renewable energy storage applications given the scale of the ESS required to meet the energy demand. This necessity has propelled significant effort to model the thermal behaviour of ESS. Understanding and modelling the thermal behaviour of these systems is a crucial consideration before designing an efficient thermal management system that would operate safely and extend the lifetime of the ESS. This is vital in order to eliminate intermittency and add value to renewable sources of power. This paper concentrates on reviewing theoretical approaches used to simulate the operating temperatures of ESS and the subsequent endeavours of modelling thermal management systems for these systems. The intent of this review is to present some of the different methods of modelling the thermal behaviour of ESS highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical Energy Storage - 2015)
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435 KiB  
Article
Experimental Research on Water Boiling Heat Transfer on Horizontal Copper Rod Surface at Sub-Atmospheric Pressure
by Li-Hua Yu, Shu-Xue Xu, Guo-Yuan Ma and Jun Wang
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10141-10152; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910141 - 16 Sep 2015
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4292
Abstract
In recent years, water (R718) as a kind of natural refrigerant—which is environmentally-friendly, safe and cheap—has been reconsidered by scholars. The systems of using water as the refrigerant, such as water vapor compression refrigeration and heat pump systems run at sub-atmospheric pressure. So, [...] Read more.
In recent years, water (R718) as a kind of natural refrigerant—which is environmentally-friendly, safe and cheap—has been reconsidered by scholars. The systems of using water as the refrigerant, such as water vapor compression refrigeration and heat pump systems run at sub-atmospheric pressure. So, the research on water boiling heat transfer at sub-atmospheric pressure has been an important issue. There are many research papers on the evaporation of water, but there is a lack of data on the characteristics at sub-atmospheric pressures, especially lower than 3 kPa (the saturation temperature is 24 °C). In this paper, the experimental research on water boiling heat transfer on a horizontal copper rod surface at 1.8–3.3 kPa is presented. Regression equations of the boiling heat transfer coefficient are obtained based on the experimental data, which are convenient for practical application. Full article
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1818 KiB  
Article
Design Optimization and Analysis of a Dual-Permanent-Magnet-Excited Machine Using Response Surface Methodology
by Linni Jian, Yujun Shi, Jin Wei, Yanchong Zheng and Zhengxing Deng
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10127-10140; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910127 - 16 Sep 2015
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5322
Abstract
The dual-permanent-magnet-excited (DPME) machine employs permanent magnets (PMs) both on the stator and the rotor. It relies on the bi-directional field modulation effect (BFME) to achieve stable electromechanical energy conversion. Therefore, this new type of machine is capable of offering much higher torque [...] Read more.
The dual-permanent-magnet-excited (DPME) machine employs permanent magnets (PMs) both on the stator and the rotor. It relies on the bi-directional field modulation effect (BFME) to achieve stable electromechanical energy conversion. Therefore, this new type of machine is capable of offering much higher torque capability than its traditional counterparts. This paper is devoted to investigating the optimum design method for improving the BFME of DPME machines, so as to further improve their produced electromagnetic torques. Response surface methodology is engaged to investigate the impacts of shape factors of the stator and rotor slots on the torque capability of the DPME machine, and the fitted models are built up by using both the finite element method (FEM) and the least-squares method. After that, the optimum shape factors are obtained from the fitted models. The results estimated by using both two-dimensional (2D)-FEM and three-dimensional (3D)-FEM demonstrate that the pull-out torque of the optimum case is 24.5% larger than that of the initial case, while the usage of PM material of the optimum case is 8.9% less than that of the initial case. Full article
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5300 KiB  
Article
A Study of Fuel Economy Improvement in a Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle using Engine on/off and Battery Charging Power Control Based on Driver Characteristics
by Seulgi Lee, Jingyu Choi, Kiyun Jeong and Hyunsoo Kim
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10106-10126; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910106 - 16 Sep 2015
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7143
Abstract
In this study, driving data for various types of drivers are collected using a VIDE (virtual integrated driving environment), and a driver model is developed. To represent the driver tendencies quantitatively, the DDA (degree of driver aggression) is proposed based on fuzzy logic. [...] Read more.
In this study, driving data for various types of drivers are collected using a VIDE (virtual integrated driving environment), and a driver model is developed. To represent the driver tendencies quantitatively, the DDA (degree of driver aggression) is proposed based on fuzzy logic. DDA has a 0-1 value; the closer the DDA is to one, the more aggressive the driver. Using the DDA, an engine on/off and battery charging power control algorithm are developed to improve the fuel economy of a power-split-type plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. The engine on/off control reduces the frequent engine on/off caused by aggressive driving, whereas the battery charging power control maintains the battery state of charge (SOC) by operating the engine according to the DDA. It is found that the proposed control algorithm improves fuel economy by 17.3% compared to the existing control for an aggressive driver. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles and Hybrid Vehicles)
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2376 KiB  
Article
Integrated Electrical and Thermal Grid Facility - Testing of Future Microgrid Technologies
by Sundar Raj Thangavelu, Inam Ullah Nutkani, Chia Meng Hwee, Aung Myat and Ashwin Khambadkone
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10082-10105; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910082 - 16 Sep 2015
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7623
Abstract
This paper describes the Experimental Power Grid Centre (EPGC) microgrid test facility, which was developed to enable research, development and testing for a wide range of distributed generation and microgrid technologies. The EPGC microgrid facility comprises a integrated electrical and thermal grid with [...] Read more.
This paper describes the Experimental Power Grid Centre (EPGC) microgrid test facility, which was developed to enable research, development and testing for a wide range of distributed generation and microgrid technologies. The EPGC microgrid facility comprises a integrated electrical and thermal grid with a flexible and configurable architecture, and includes various distributed energy resources and emulators, such as generators, renewable, energy storage technologies and programmable load banks. The integrated thermal grid provides an opportunity to harness waste heat produced by the generators for combined heat, power and cooling applications, and support research in optimization of combined electrical-thermal systems. Several case studies are presented to demonstrate the testing of different control and operation strategies for storage systems in grid-connected and islanded microgrids. One of the case studies also demonstrates an integrated thermal grid to convert waste heat to useful energy, which thus far resulted in a higher combined energy efficiency. Experiment results confirm that the facility enables testing and evaluation of grid technologies and practical problems that may not be apparent in a computer simulated environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microgrids)
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627 KiB  
Article
Study on Thermal Degradation Characteristics and Regression Rate Measurement of Paraffin-Based Fuel
by Songqi Hu, Guanjie Wu, Yijin Hua, Noor Fatima Rashid and Hongyun Hu
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10058-10081; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910058 - 15 Sep 2015
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5090
Abstract
Paraffin fuel has been found to have a regression rate that is higher than conventional HTPB (hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene) fuel and, thus, presents itself as an ideal energy source for a hybrid rocket engine. The energy characteristics of paraffin-based fuel and HTPB fuel have [...] Read more.
Paraffin fuel has been found to have a regression rate that is higher than conventional HTPB (hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene) fuel and, thus, presents itself as an ideal energy source for a hybrid rocket engine. The energy characteristics of paraffin-based fuel and HTPB fuel have been calculated by the method of minimum free energy. The thermal degradation characteristics were measured for paraffin, pretreated paraffin, HTPB and paraffin-based fuel in different working conditions by the using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and a thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA). The regression rates of paraffin-based fuel and HTPB fuel were tested by a rectangular solid-gas hybrid engine. The research findings showed that: the specific impulse of paraffin-based fuel is almost the same as that of HTPB fuel; the decomposition temperature of pretreated paraffin is higher than that of the unprocessed paraffin, but lower than that of HTPB; with the increase of paraffin, the initial reaction exothermic peak of paraffin-based fuel is reached in advance, and the initial reaction heat release also increases; the regression rate of paraffin-based fuel is higher than the common HTPB fuel under the same conditions; with the increase of oxidizer mass flow rate, the regression rate of solid fuel increases accordingly for the same fuel formulation. Full article
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1568 KiB  
Article
Reducing Carbon Emissions from Shopping Trips: Evidence from China
by Jing Li, Pingyu Zhang, Kevin Lo, Meng Guo and Mark Wang
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10043-10057; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910043 - 15 Sep 2015
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5316
Abstract
With rising income and the emergence of modern shopping centers in urban China, shopping trips by private car becomes more and more common, leading to higher carbon emissions in the transport sector. Encouraging car owners to shift transport mode from private car to [...] Read more.
With rising income and the emergence of modern shopping centers in urban China, shopping trips by private car becomes more and more common, leading to higher carbon emissions in the transport sector. Encouraging car owners to shift transport mode from private car to public transport could achieve significant emissions reductions. This study estimate carbon emissions savings by shifting from private cars to public transport for shopping trips in urban China, using Shenyang, one of the largest cities in China, as a case study. Our results show that the average carbon emissions per shopper is 426.9 g, and the carbon emissions on weekends is 13% higher than weekdays. Moreover, shoppers travelling by private car emitted five times more carbon emission than those by public transport. We also found that car ownership gradually increased as accessibility to public transport decreased, and that more car owners chose to travel by private cars than public transport in areas with limited access. This study, thus, highlights the potential for high-quality public transport to reduce the transport sector’s carbon emissions in urban China. Full article
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7654 KiB  
Article
Thermal Behaviour Investigation of a Large and High Power Lithium Iron Phosphate Cylindrical Cell
by Odile Capron, Ahmadou Samba, Noshin Omar, Peter Van Den Bossche and Joeri Van Mierlo
Energies 2015, 8(9), 10017-10042; https://doi.org/10.3390/en80910017 - 15 Sep 2015
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7597
Abstract
This paper investigates the thermal behaviour of a large lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery cell based on its electrochemical-thermal modelling for the predictions of its temperature evolution and distribution during both charge and discharge processes. The electrochemical-thermal modelling of the cell is performed [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the thermal behaviour of a large lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery cell based on its electrochemical-thermal modelling for the predictions of its temperature evolution and distribution during both charge and discharge processes. The electrochemical-thermal modelling of the cell is performed for two cell geometry approaches: homogeneous (the internal region is considered as a single region) and discrete (the internal region is split into smaller regions for each layer inside the cell). The experimental measurements and the predictions of the cell surface temperature achieved with the simulations for both approaches are in good agreement with 1.5 °C maximum root mean square error. From the results, the maximum cell surface temperature and temperature gradient between the internal and the surface regions are around 31.3 °C and 1.6 °C. The temperature gradient in the radial direction is observed to be greater about 1.1 °C compared to the longitudinal direction, which is caused by the lower thermal conductivity of the cell in the radial compared to the longitudinal direction. During its discharge, the reversible, the ohmic and the reaction heat generations inside the cell reach up to 2 W, 7 W and 17 W respectively. From the comparison of the two modelling approaches, this paper establishes that the homogeneous modelling of the cell internal region is suitable for the study of a single cylindrical cell and is appropriate for the two-dimensional thermal behaviour investigation of a battery module made of multiple cells. Full article
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763 KiB  
Article
Online Energy Management of City Cars with Multi-Objective Linear Parameter-Varying L2-Gain Control
by Boe-Shong Hong and Mei-Hung Wu
Energies 2015, 8(9), 9992-10016; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8099992 - 15 Sep 2015
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4295
Abstract
This work aims at online regulating transient current out of the batteries of small-sized electric cars that transport people and goods around cities. In a city with heavy traffic, transient current dominates the energy economy and propulsion capability, which are in opposition to [...] Read more.
This work aims at online regulating transient current out of the batteries of small-sized electric cars that transport people and goods around cities. In a city with heavy traffic, transient current dominates the energy economy and propulsion capability, which are in opposition to each other. In order to manage the trade-off between energy consumption per distance and propulsion capability in transience, the authors improve on previous work on multi-objective linear parameter-varying (LPV) L2-gain control. The observer embedded into this multi-objective controller no longer assumes Kalman-filtering structure, and structural conservatism is thus removed. A full-spectrum set of experiments is performed. The results reveal that the feedback design significantly improves energy-motion management. Full article
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2064 KiB  
Article
Study and Implementation of a Two-Phase Interleaved Bidirectional DC/DC Converter for Vehicle and DC-Microgrid Systems
by Ching-Ming Lai, Yuan-Chih Lin and Dasheng Lee
Energies 2015, 8(9), 9969-9991; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8099969 - 14 Sep 2015
Cited by 63 | Viewed by 11779
Abstract
The objective of this paper is to implement a two-phase, interleaved, bidirectional DC/DC converter topology with an improved voltage conversion ratio for electric vehicle (EV) and DC-microgrid systems. In this study, a two-phase interleaved charge-pump topology is introduced to achieve a high voltage [...] Read more.
The objective of this paper is to implement a two-phase, interleaved, bidirectional DC/DC converter topology with an improved voltage conversion ratio for electric vehicle (EV) and DC-microgrid systems. In this study, a two-phase interleaved charge-pump topology is introduced to achieve a high voltage conversion ratio with very simple control circuits. In discharge mode, the circuit topology acts as a voltage-multiplier boost converter to achieve a high step-up conversion ratio (48 V to 240 V). In charge mode, the circuit topology acts as a voltage-divider buck converter to achieve a high voltage step-down conversion ratio (240 V to 48 V). The circuit configuration, operating principle, steady-state analysis and the closed-loop control of the proposed converter are presented. Experiments conducted on a laboratory prototype with 500 W power-rating are presented to verify the effectiveness. The maximum efficiency levels in discharge and charge modes are about 97.7% and 98.4% respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles and Hybrid Vehicles)
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1169 KiB  
Article
Map-Based Power-Split Strategy Design with Predictive Performance Optimization for Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles
by Jixiang Fan, Jiangyan Zhang and Tielong Shen
Energies 2015, 8(9), 9946-9968; https://doi.org/10.3390/en8099946 - 14 Sep 2015
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 8642
Abstract
In this paper, a map-based optimal energy management strategy is proposed to improve the consumption economy of a plug-in parallel hybrid electric vehicle. In the design of the maps, which provide both the torque split between engine and motor and the gear shift, [...] Read more.
In this paper, a map-based optimal energy management strategy is proposed to improve the consumption economy of a plug-in parallel hybrid electric vehicle. In the design of the maps, which provide both the torque split between engine and motor and the gear shift, not only the current vehicle speed and power demand, but also the optimality based on the predicted trajectory of vehicle dynamics are considered. To seek the optimality, the equivalent consumption, which trades off the fuel and electricity usages, is chosen as the cost function. Moreover, in order to decrease the model errors in the process of optimization conducted in the discrete time domain, the variational integrator is employed to calculate the evolution of the vehicle dynamics. To evaluate the proposed energy management strategy, the simulation results performed on a professional GT-Suit simulator are demonstrated and the comparison to a real-time optimization method is also given to show the advantage of the proposed off-line optimization approach. Full article
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