Special Issue "Sustainable Water Systems"

Guest Editor
Prof. Dr. Miklas Scholz
School of Computing, Science and Engineering, The University of Salford, Newton Building, Salford, Greater Manchester, M5 4WT, England, UK
Website: http://www.cse.salford.ac.uk/profile.php?profile=M.Scholz
E-Mail: m.scholz@salford.ac.uk
Phone: +44 161 295 5921
Interests: stormwater management; runoff control; filtration; wetlands; sustainable water management

Dear Colleagues,

Most sustainable water systems comprise novel combinations of traditional and new system components that mimic and work with nature. These systems will both protect public health and safety and will restore natural and human landscapes. Examples of sustainable natural designs include the following:

Watershed restoration promoting natural watershed flows and functions through localized water retention with sustainable flood retention basins, water use and recycling into natural wetlands, groundwater and air. These large-scale systems will restore and preserve vegetation and wildlife, and minimize climate change and global warming.

Green cities that focus on restoration of natural cycles of water infiltration and evaporation, through localized treatment and groundwater recharge via sustainable drainage systems, trees, parks and roof gardens and stream restoration.

Smart growth promoting patterns of neighbourhood development that interconnect nature and the built environment, preserve open space and respect natural drainage flows.

Green infrastructure such as most sustainable drainage systems (or best management practices) that trap storm water and sustain trees and plants. These plants restore beauty and improve the air quality in cities, moderate energy flows and provide potential food sources.

Small-scale onsite and neighborhood treatment via small-scale technologies such as wetlands that mimic natural membranes and filters and that utilize soils and smart localized controls.

Onsite reuse such as closed-loop water systems in residential and commercial buildings, where storm water and wastewater are treated and reused for landscape irrigation, toilet flushing and cooling, and where minimal waste leaves the site.

Therefore, we would like to call for papers to disseminate and share findings on similar sustainable water systems in addressing problems and opportunities scientifically. Papers are selected by a rigorous peer review procedure with the aim of rapid and wide dissemination of research results, development and application in the wider area of sustainable water systems. Original research paper or critical reviews are invited.

Prof. Dr. Miklas Scholz
Guest Editor

Submission

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. Papers will be published continuously (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are refereed through a peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed Open Access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 300 CHF (Swiss Francs). English correction and/or formatting fees of 250 CHF (Swiss Francs) will be charged in certain cases for those articles accepted for publication that require extensive additional formatting and/or English corrections.

• biofiltration
• green cities
• green infrastructure
• integrated constructed wetland
• local wastewater treatment
• local water reuse
• modeling of sustainable water systems
• smart growth
• sustainable drainage system
• watershed restoration

Type of the Paper: Article
Title: The Characterization of Soil Hydraulic Properties for the Implementation of In-field Rainwater Harvesting
Author: J. Mzezewa¹and L. D. van Rensburg ²
Affiliation: ¹Department of Soil Science, University of Venda, P/Bag X5050, Thohoyandou 0950 South Africa; E-Mail: Jestinos.Mzezewa@univen.ac.za
² Department of Crop, Soil and Climate Sciences, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339 Bloemfontein 9300 South Africa
Abstract: Constraints to food production in semi-arid tropical countries often results from water loss by runoff and evaporation. A special crop production technique, the in-field rainwater harvesting (IRWH) aims to manage rainfall, runoff and evaporation for sustainable crop production. Soil hydraulic properties are important for understanding the water balance in IRWH. The Shortlands soil (Cambisol) is an important agricultural soil in South Africa and is earmarked for IRWH. Data on the hydraulic properties of the Shortlands soil is non-existent. The aim of this study was to characterize selected important hydraulic properties of a soil profile and evaluate its suitability for IRWH strategy. The study was carried out at the University of Venda Experimental Farm in Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa (22^o 58’ S, 30^o 26’ E at 596 m above sea level). The drainage patterns of soil horizons were evaluated using the internal drainage method. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (K_s) was determined using a double ring infiltrometer, and soil water retention curve (SWRC) by the hanging water column. The results showed favorable K_s (8.3 x 10^-5 m s^-1 and 3.3 x 10^-5 m s^-1 in A and B horizons, respectively), good water retention properties as 19% of the water was released between saturation and 8 kPa, and high plant available water of 267 mm in the root zone. It was concluded that the soil was highly suitable for IRWH.
Key words: sustainable crop production; water transmission; semi-arid; water holding capacity

Type of the Paper: Article
Title: Sustainable Use of Natural Resources - Viable, Equitable and Bearable Approach to Reindustrialisation and Clean up Strategies of Contaminated Sites.
Author: Sergio Cappucci, Andrea Carloni and Massimo Maffucci
Affiliation: ENEA – Via Anguillarese, 301 – 00123 – Roma; E-Mail: sergio.cappucci@enea.it; andrea.carloni@enea.it; massimo.maffucci@enea.it
Abstract: The Earth has limited natural resources and majority of industrialised countries, over the last decades, have exploited renewable and non renewable wealth without sustainable development criteria. Industrial processes cover a wide range of activities that range from extraction, to transformation, transport and distribution of natural resources, which may impact several environmental matrix in different way. Groundwater, in particular, is characterised by contamination’s level within industrial areas which remediation activities have to solve. In Italy, clean up strategies within contaminated Sites of National relevance (SIN) are in many cases impacting the economic development of industrial consortium and districts as polluters must pay for environmental damages since 1986. The reclamation of contaminated industrial areas is proceeding very slowly and this creates a delay of remediation actions affecting the economic development of some region. In some case, the long term management and cost of the clean up activities did not allow the reuse of the territory within the SIN. This issue is becoming critical and the Italian Government activated the Special Strategic Project (SSP) on 2008 in order to: (1) stimulate the economic and productive development of the contaminated industrial areas and (2) ) to define the best conditions at acceptable costs for the companies in charge of cleaning up the sites, without prejudice for the environment. This lead to a more efficient and effective approach of remediation and reindustrialization projects whose public financing proposal requires the agreement between private and public stakeholders.
A detailed cost analysis of different techniques, adopted for emergency actions and reclamation of contaminated aquifers on Italian SIN distinguishing physical and hydraulics confinement as well as water treatment systems, is presented. Preliminary results quantify how the overall cost of ground waters remediation over a period of 30 years is strongly influenced by: (1) different geometries of ground water barriers; (2) the extension of hot spot and (3) the ground waters velocity. On the other hand, the use of on-site Renewable Energy Sources (RES) within dismissed industrial areas and mines is examined and the cash-flow prevision have been calculated over the same time interval (a period of 30 years) on the base of the actual cost and benefit of electricity produced by RES. The analyses conducted in the present work show that in the central and southern part of Italy the profit derived by RES farms installed on a surface similar to the extension of the groundwater contaminated hot spots, may cover the cost of several long lasting waters remediation plans.

Type of the Paper: Article
Title: Biofiltration Causes Significant Shifts in the Bacterial Communities that Colonize the Nutrient-solutions of a Tomato Soiless Culture
Author: Patrice Rey
Affiliation: Département Sciences et Gestion du Végétal, 1, cours du Général de Gaulle, 33 175 Gradignan CS 40201, France; E-Mail: prey@bordeaux.inra.fr
Abstract: In soilless culture, slow filtration (SF) is used to eliminate plant pathogenic agents from nutrient solutions. The objective of the present work is to study the bacterial communities that colonize the solutions before and after they flow through the filtering columns. Two filters were amended with P. putida or B. cereus-strains (P-filter and B-filter, respectively), a third filter was a control (C-filter). Biological activation of filter unit through bacterial amendment very significantly enhance filter efficacy against Pythium spp. and Fusarium oxysporum; however, numerous bacteria (around 10³-10⁴ cfu.mL-¹) were detected in the effluent solutions. The community level physiological profiling indicated a temporal shift of bacterial populations throughout the cultural season of 6 month. The metabolism of nutrient-solutions originally oriented towards carbohydrates progressively shifted towards degradation of specific amino acids and carboxylic acids. Single Strand Conformation Polymorphism (SSCP) fingerprintings showed that a shift in bacterial communities colonizing the influent and the effluent solutions of slow-filters occurred. In addition, effluent bacterial communities were different from influent ones when slow-filters were bacteria-amended (P and B filters). In comparison with influent, 16S rDNA sequencing revealed that phylotypes diversity was low in the effluent from bacteria-amended filters, but no reduction was observed in the effluent from the control filter. According to the filters, bacterial communities from effluents were very diverse. When solutions were filtered on a natural filter (C-filter), the proportion of Proteobacteria -) increasedb- and a (whereas the proportion of uncultured candidate phyla, i.e. candidate division OD1 rose in P- and B-filters.

Type of the Paper: Review
Title: Smart Water Metering: A Review
Author: T. Boyle, D. Giurco and R. Stewart
Abstract: This paper reviews the drivers for development of smart water metering in the urban context and outlines their application to date. A typology of approaches to smart and intelligent water metering is developed. The review concludes with suggestions for future research to ensure that smart metering makes a positive contribution to sustainable water management.

Type of the Paper: Article
Title: Fungal Waste-Biomasses as Potential Low-Cost Biosorbents for Decolourisation of Textile Wastewaters
Author: Giovanna Cristina Varese, Valeria Prigione
Affiliation: Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e Biologia dei Sistemi, Università degli Studi di Torino viale Mattioli, 25, 10125 Torino, Italy; E-Mail: cristina.varese@unito.it, valeria.prigione@unito.it
Abstract: The biosorption potential of three fungal waste-biomasses (Acremonium strictum, Acremonium sp. and Penicillium sp.) kindly provided by different pharmaceutical companies was compared with that of a selected biomass (Cunninghamella elegans), already proved to be very effective in dye biosorption (patent number EP10153195.2). In the first part of this work were carried out batch experiments using three simulated dye baths. Among the waste-biomasses, A. strictum resulted the most efficient (decolourisation percentage up to 85%); nevertheless it was less active than C. elegans, which was able to determine a quick and substantial decolourisation of all the simulated dye baths (decolourisation percentage up to 97% in 30 min).
Afterwards, A. strictum and C. elegans biomasses were tested for the treatment of nine real exhausted dye baths. A. strictum biomass proved to be effective only against exhausted dye baths at acidic or neutral pH whereas C. elegans biomass confirmed its high efficiency and versatility towards exhausted dye baths characterized by different classes of dyes (acid, disperse, vat, reactive), pH and ionic strength.
Finally, the effect of pH on the biosorption process was evaluated to provide a realistic estimation of the validity of the laboratory results in an industrial setting. C. elegans biomass resulted highly effective from pH 3 to pH 11 (sorption capacities of 1054 and 667 mg g^-1, respectively); for this reasons, this biomass can be considered an excellent and exceptionally versatile biosorbent material.

Type of the Paper: Article
Title: What Affect Community's Attitudes and Behaviours in Using Stormwater Treated Through MAR Process for Fit-for-Uses: a Case Study in Salisbury, South Australia
Author: Zhifang Wu and Ganesh Keremane
Affiliation: School of Commerce, University of South Australia, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia; E-Mail: Zhifang.Wu@unisa.edu.au, ganesh.keremane@unisa.edu.au
Abstract: Stormwater has been recognised as an additional/alternative source of water to augment freshwater supply and address growing needs of humankind. Past studies have identified public health concerns and gaining public acceptance as major challenges in implementing water reuse strategies. In line with this, we conducted an internet survey to gauge attitude and intention of urban South Australians to use stormwater treated through Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) process for  fit-for-uses. We found that respondents’ emotion and perception of health risk regarding using the treated stormwater were closely related to the proximity of the end use to human contact. In terms of the quality attributes, colour, odour and salt were all indicated important; but odour was the most important for all potential uses except washing cars. The quality preferences were also closely related to the proximity of the end use to human contact.

Type of Paper: Article
Title: Creation of Carbon Credits by Water Saving
Author: Yasutoshi Shimizu and Kanako Toyosada
Affiliation: Mari Yoshitaka(MUMSS) and Kyosuke Sakaue(Meiji Univ.), Japan
Abstract: Until now, as a way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions from Japanese homes, emphasis has been placed on energy reduction in air-conditioning and lighting. In recent years there has been progress in CO2 emissions reduction through research into the water-saving performance of bathroom fixtures such as toilets and showers. Simulations have shown that CO2 emissions of water consumption origin in Japanese homes can be reduced by 25% (1% of Japan’s total CO2 emissions) by 2020 through adoption of the use of water-saving fixtures.  In response to this finding, a program to promote the replacement of current fixtures with water-saving toilet bowls and thermally insulated bathtubs has been added to the Government of Japan’s energy-saving policy. Furthermore, CO2 emissions reduction through spread of the use of water-saving fixtures has been adopted by the domestic credit system promoted by the Government of Japan as a way of achieving CO2 emissions-reduction targets; application of this credit system has also begun. Via the adoption of this domestic credit system, CO2 emissions reduction through water saving will help to achieve Japan’s CO2-reduction target. As part of a bilateral offset credit mechanism promoted by the Japanese Government, research to evaluate the CO2 reduction potential of the adoption of water-saving fixtures has been done in the city of Dalian, in China. A movement to adopt the spread of the use of water-saving apparatus as a CO2 emissions reduction measure is being developed by the Asian area.

Type of the Paper: Article
Title: Potential for Potable Water Savings by Using Rainwater for Non-potable Uses in Houses
Authors: Eduardo Leite Souza and Enedir Ghisi
Affiliation: Laboratory of Energy Efficiency in Buildings, Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Campus Universitario, Trindade, CTC, ECV, Florianópolis - SC, 88040-900, Brazil; E-Mail: enedir@labeee.ufsc.br
Abstract: The objective of this study was to assess the potential for potable water savings by using rainwater as well as the sizing of rainwater tanks in houses in some cities in the world. Daily rainfall data for thirteen cities located in different countries were used. Different catchment areas, number of residents, potable and rainwater demands were considered in order to assess their impact on the potential for potable water savings and sizing of rainwater tanks. The analysis was performed using the Netuno computer programme. The results showed that the largest potentials for potable water savings are obtained in cities where there is constant rainfall, which does not always mean higher annual average rainfall. Cities with well-defined periods of drought require very large tank capacities. Overall, it was observed that all parameters (catchment area, number of residents and potable and rainwater demands, and rainfall data) influence the sizing of the tank for rainwater storage. The main conclusion of this study was that the greatest potential for potable water savings are achieved in cities where there is constant rainfall, not necessarily with great annual averages. Also, rainwater tank capacities should be estimated for each, since the parameters are almost always different in each residence.

Type of the Paper: Article
Title: Water Resources Sustainability in the Yaqui River Irrigation District No. 041, Sonora, México
Author: José Luis Minjares L. and Roberto Isidro Cruz Medina
Abstract: The Yaqui River Irrigation District No. 041, in Northwest México, has been affected by intensive agricultural practices that, combined with a long drought, collapsed the system during the agricultural year 2003-2004. In this paper a quantitative and transferable methodology is presented that fosters better and sustainable agricultural practices in the irrigation district. It also identifies a set of indicators which highlight progress towards sustainable development, using a multiyear simulation-optimization model. Sustainable attributes like productivity, reliability, resilience, vulnerability and equity are incorporated in the objective function of the long-term model, to control the relationship of decisions taken in the present and their long term consequences. Furthermore, critical factors affecting the sustainability of an irrigation district are identified and diagnostic criteria are proposed. Results show that the model may be used to elaborate the annual irrigation plan for the district under different long-run management scenarios, and to identify possible practices or decisions that can put the sustainability of the system at risk. Moreover, the proposed sustainability indicators may be used to measure the state of the irrigation district and the impacts on the available resources from decisions made. In addition, with these sustainability indicators water management practices and decisions that have been taken in the past can be evaluated for probable conflicts for water in the future.
Key words: Irrigated agriculture sustainability; Sustainability index; Irrigation District No. 041; Yaqui Basin