http://www.mdpi.com/journal/water Latest open access articles published in Water at http://www.mdpi.com/journal/water http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/494 The following paragraphs are reproduced from the website of the publisher [1].Disinfection By-Products and Human Health is based on contributions from speakers who participated in May 2011 workshops on Disinfection By-Products (DBPs) and Human Health at Ozwater 11 in Adelaide, Australia or at an AWA sponsored workshop at the Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, Perth, Australia.The contributions are prepared to facilitate communication with practitioners, rather than researchers, making use of overview illustrations rather than dense text or data tables. Each chapter concludes with up to 5 key findings that are take-home messages for practitioners. [...] http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/494 Fri, 18 May 2012 00:00:00 CEST Water 2012-05-18 4 2 Books Received 494 495 2073-4441 Disinfection By-Products and Human Health. Edited by Steve E. Hrudey and Jeffrey W.A. Charrois, IWA Publishing, 2012; 304 pages. Price: US$ 178.20/£ 99.00 ISBN 978–1–843–39519–5 2012-05-18 doi: 10.3390/w4020494 Shu-Kun Lin http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/474 The Rhine River Delta is crucial to the Dutch economy. The Maeslant barrier was built in 1997 to protect the Rhine estuary, with the city and port of Rotterdam, from storm surges. This research takes a simple approach to quantify the influence of the Maeslant storm surge barrier on design water levels behind the barrier. The dikes in the area are supposed to be able to withstand these levels. Equal Level Curves approach is used to calculate the Rotterdam water levels by using Rhine discharges and sea water levels as input. Their joint probability function generates the occurrence frequency of a certain combination that will lead to a certain high water level in Rotterdam. The results show that the flood frequency in Rotterdam is reduced effectively with the controlled barrier in current and in future scenarios influenced by climate change. In addition, an investigation of the sensitivity of the operational parameters suggests that there is a negligible influence on the high water level frequency when the decision closing water level for the barrier is set higher due to the benefits of navigation (but not exceeding the design safety level 4 m MSL). http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/474 Fri, 11 May 2012 00:00:00 CEST Water 2012-05-11 4 2 Article 474 493 2073-4441 Influence of a Storm Surge Barrier’s Operation on the Flood Frequency in the Rhine Delta Area 2012-05-11 doi: 10.3390/w4020474 Hua Zhong Peter-Jules van Overloop Pieter van Gelder Ties Rijcken http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/460 Microalgae can be used for the treatment of municipal wastewater. The application of microalgal biofilms in wastewater treatment systems seems attractive, being able to remove nitrogen, phosphorus and COD from wastewater at a short hydraulic retention time. This study therefore investigates the area requirement, achieved effluent concentrations and biomass production of a hypothetical large-scale microalgal biofilm system treating municipal wastewater. Three scenarios were defined: using microalgal biofilms: (1) as a post-treatment; (2) as a second stage of wastewater treatment, after a first stage in which COD is removed by activated sludge; and (3) in a symbiotic microalgal/heterotrophic system. The analysis showed that in the Netherlands, the area requirements for these three scenarios range from 0.32 to 2.1 m2 per person equivalent. Moreover, it was found that it was not possible to simultaneously remove all nitrogen and phosphorus from the wastewater, because of the nitrogen:phosphorus ratio in the wastewater. Phosphorus was limiting in the post-treatment scenario, while nitrogen was limiting in the two other scenarios. Furthermore, a substantial amount of microalgal biomass was produced, ranging from 13 to 59 g per person equivalent per day. These findings show that microalgal biofilm systems hold large potential as seasonal wastewater treatment systems and that it is worthwhile to investigate these systems further. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/460 Fri, 27 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Water 2012-04-27 4 2 Article 460 473 2073-4441 Scenario Analysis of Nutrient Removal from Municipal Wastewater by Microalgal Biofilms 2012-04-27 doi: 10.3390/w4020460 Nadine C. Boelee Hardy Temmink Marcel Janssen Cees J. N. Buisman René H. Wijffels http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/430 This paper demonstrates a methodology for integrating existing models for the rapid simulation of coastal flood events across a large and varied case study area on the UK south coast. Following validation against observations from real coastal floods, synthetic events driven by realistic waves and water levels and the full range of failure mechanisms were modelled for a range of loadings to generate peak flood water depths and an overview of impacts across this spectrum of possible floods. Overtopping is relatively important compared to breaching as coastal floodplains are small. This modelling system supports multiple potential applications, such as planning flood warnings, coastal defence upgrade, and land use, including under sea-level rise. The concepts drawn from this study are transferable to similar coastal regions. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/430 Thu, 26 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Water 2012-04-26 4 2 Article 430 459 2073-4441 Coastal Flooding in the Solent: An Integrated Analysis of Defences and Inundation 2012-04-26 doi: 10.3390/w4020430 Matthew P. Wadey Robert J. Nicholls Craig Hutton http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/389 Controversy regarding the amount of water consumed or saved as a result of human activity is currently paramount in water-scarce areas. In recent decades, golf—a land and water consuming activity—has been implanted in several areas of the Mediterranean basin, where the scarcity of water resources is well-known. As a result, the use of conventional water resources for golf course irrigation is increasingly contested and its replacement by reclaimed water has become essential. This paper examines the wide range of issues involved in its use on golf courses, including hazards—due to the presence of microorganisms and pollutants—and the corresponding risks that can appear. The resulting biological, chemical and physical water quality concerns are analyzed. Legal aspects related to the use of reclaimed water are also discussed and good reuse practices are suggested, including a detailed examination of risk assessment procedures and tools through observation or chemical, physical and microbiological analysis. The HACCP system—which focuses on quality determination in water samples from relevant control points—is described in detail, as it is generally accepted as one of the most scientific ways to detect health problems on a golf course. The paper concludes that, given the increasing availability of treated and reclaimed water and the water needs of golf courses, the future development of the sport in areas without surplus water resources—such as the Mediterranean basin—will predictably depend upon the use of reclaimed water. In recent years, risk assessment or analysis has emerged as an essential tool to guarantee the application of reclaimed water at an acceptable risk level. There certainly have been considerable advances and improvements in the tools that guarantee the safe use of reclaimed water, although current methods available require simplification for their practical application. Nevertheless, protocols applied at present seem to be adequate in order to address the key issue of enhancing the development of reclaimed water use on golf courses. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/389 Wed, 11 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Water 2012-04-11 4 2 Article 389 429 2073-4441 Golf Course Irrigation with Reclaimed Water in the Mediterranean: A Risk Management Matter 2012-04-11 doi: 10.3390/w4020389 Miquel Salgot Gerda K. Priestley Montserrat Folch http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/367 Recent literature outlines significant impacts from climate change on many areas of the world, with much focus on causes and impacts. However the long-term trends demand adaptation strategies. While a variety of solutions have been suggested, some politically viable, others not, perhaps the most significant barrier to a cohesive approach to climate adaptation is the failure from the public and policy-makers to realize that different areas will be affected differently and that “one-size-fits-all” policy solutions will not be successful. In addition, as one area may identify and respond to challenges in their location, others should be supportive of those efforts, realizing that while such actions may be neither desirable nor appropriate for them, they may need support for solutions in the future in their areas. This project was designed as a framework to identify solutions and demonstrate differences between small regions and locales based on field conditions. The State of Florida was used as a case example to outline these differences because Florida is faced with significant challenges in the coming years related to water resources, the use of funds and political capital, and the potential for economic disruption. The intent is that the results of this project will lead to a series of recommendations and action steps for policy makers to conserve the state’s assets. A similar approach can be used in other states and countries to assess the likely policy and infrastructure needs for different locales. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/367 Wed, 11 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Water 2012-04-11 4 2 Article 367 388 2073-4441 Protecting People, Infrastructure, Economies, and Ecosystem Assets: Water Management in the Face of Climate Change 2012-04-11 doi: 10.3390/w4020367 Frederick Bloetscher http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/345 Water is the primary medium through which climate change influences the Earth’s ecosystems and therefore people’s livelihoods and wellbeing. Besides climatic change, current demographic trends, economic development and related land use changes have direct impact on increasing demand for freshwater resources. Taken together, the net effect of these supply and demand changes is affecting the vulnerability of water resources. The concept of ‘vulnerability’ is not straightforward as there is no universally accepted approach for assessing vulnerability. In this study, we review the evolution of approaches to vulnerability assessment related to water resources. From the current practices, we identify research gaps, and approaches to overcome these gaps a generalized assessment framework is developed. A feasibility study is then presented in the context of the Lower Brahmaputra River Basin (LBRB). The results of the feasibility study identify the current main constraints (e.g., lack of institutional coordination) and opportunities (e.g., adaptation) of LBRB. The results of this study can be helpful for innovative research and management initiatives and the described framework can be widely used as a guideline for the vulnerability assessment of water resources systems, particularly in developing countries. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/345 Tue, 10 Apr 2012 00:00:00 CEST Water 2012-04-10 4 2 Article 345 366 2073-4441 Climate Change Adaptation and Vulnerability Assessment of Water Resources Systems in Developing Countries: A Generalized Framework and a Feasibility Study in Bangladesh 2012-04-10 doi: 10.3390/w4020345 Animesh K. Gain Carlo Giupponi Fabrice G. Renaud http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/321 The investigation of electric arc furnace (EAF) steel slag as a viable add-on technology to existing stormwater systems for the removal of dissolved phosphorus (P) was extended to explore the effects of varying environmental and treatment system conditions. Parameters such as stormwater composition, P concentration, metal concentration, pH, temperature, slag mass and slag particle size were varied. Observations relating to the method of P removal via EAF slag were also carefully considered to explain removal mechanisms involved. Results demonstrated that, although physisorption contributed to P reduction, it was not the key P removal mechanism. Instead, precipitation was observed to be a key removal pathway as evidenced by the correlation between the loss of iron (Fe) from slag and the amount of P removed from solution. The reduced removal of P by slag in a copper-dominant stormwater solution was attributed to the formation of a stable complex formed by the interaction of copper with the slag via the ion-exchange surface model. The stability of this complex inhibits the loss of Fe from the EAF slag and, consequently, P removal by means of precipitation. In terms of the effect of changing environmental and treatment system conditions on the P removal process, stormwater composition, P concentration, metal concentration, pH, temperature, slag mass and slag particle size were found to significantly influence the effectiveness of EAF slag in removing P from a given stormwater system. It was also established that a number of combinations of these factors influence P uptake differently. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/321 Tue, 27 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CEST Water 2012-03-27 4 2 Article 321 344 2073-4441 A Laboratory Study of the Treatability of Synthetic Stormwater Under Varying Conditions Using Electric Arc Furnace Steel Slag 2012-03-27 doi: 10.3390/w4020321 Nnaemeka C. Okochi Dena W. McMartin http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/295 The Dutch Delta Program is currently developing new government policies for flood protection and fresh water supply. Decision support instruments have to address the program’s technical and political complexity. The water system functions are highly interwoven and would benefit from an integrated approach on a national level, with decisions supported by a scientific Systems Analysis. Politically, there is a tendency towards broad participation and decentralization, and decision-making is typically supported by Conflict Resolution methods. To connect these two sides of the Delta Program’s task, an outline is presented of an internet community-based interactive instrument, preliminarily named SimDelta. On-line interactive maps and elements of serious gaming intuitively provide local Delta Program participants insight into the interaction between scenarios, problems, and solutions. SimDelta uses the internet to more frequently and efficiently present conceptual designs by architects and engineers to the Delta Program stakeholders, record their preferences, and “crowdsource” corrections, improvements and new ideas. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/295 Fri, 23 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-03-23 4 2 Article 295 320 2073-4441 “SimDelta”—Inquiry into an Internet-Based Interactive Model for Water Infrastructure Development in The Netherlands 2012-03-23 doi: 10.3390/w4020295 Ties Rijcken Jan Stijnen Nadine Slootjes http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/283 In this work, the ability of a commercial spiral-wound nanofiltration membrane to remove hardness and ions from diluted seawater was studied. Experiments were carried out in the pressure range of 4–10 bar. Analyses of the samples, and permeates at different pressures, were performed and the effects of the trans-membrane pressure on the permeate flux were investigated. The results show that this nanofiltration membrane is capable of retaining 96–98% of the total hardness, 79–89% of the electrical conductivity and 79–89% of the total dissolved solid (TDS). Our results are in good agreement with those reported by the manufacturing company. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/2/283 Fri, 23 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-03-23 4 2 Article 283 294 2073-4441 The Ability of a Nanofiltration Membrane to Remove Hardness and Ions from Diluted Seawater 2012-03-23 doi: 10.3390/w4020283 Amir Abbas Izadpanah Asghar Javidnia http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/272 In recent years, disasters caused by flash floods with many casualties have occurred frequently in China. In order to effectively prevent flash flood disasters, the State Council approved the National Flash Flood Control Planning (NFFCP) in 2006. In this planning, non-structural measures are recommended as the first step to be adopted in the prevention of flash floods, debris flow and landslide disasters caused by heavy rainfall. In order to effectively build up a comprehensive non-structural measure system for flash flood disaster prevention, the Ministry of Water Resources has asked the local authorities to conduct studies in 103 pilot counties aiming to explore practical schemes. Based on the experience from these pilot counties, the construction of non-structural measures on flash flood disaster prevention for 1836 counties was officially initiated in 2010. The contents of non-structural measures for flash flood disaster prevention at county level include eight aspects. This paper will systematically illustrate the main contents of this national project for the construction of non-structural measures for flash flood disaster prevention in China. This work could provide a reference for other countries and regions in terms of flash flood prevention. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/272 Mon, 19 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-03-19 4 1 Article 272 282 2073-4441 Framework of National Non-Structural Measures for Flash Flood Disaster Prevention in China 2012-03-19 doi: 10.3390/w4010272 Dongya Sun Dawei Zhang Xiaotao Cheng http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/260 The objective of this study was to investigate the application of constructed wetlands as a mean to manage olive mill wastewater (OMW). Two free water surface (FWS) constructed wetlands, one without (CW1) and one with effluent recirculation (CW2), were operated for a two-year period with diluted OMW (1:10) and evaluated in terms of the removal of COD, TSS, TKN, NH4+-N, NO3−-N, TP and total phenols. The organic loading rate of CWs was adjusted to 925 kg BOD/ha·d. In CW1 the removal efficiency averaged 80%, 83%, 78%, 80%, and 74% for COD, TSS, TKN, TP, and total phenols, respectively, during the operation period. Effluent recirculation further improved the treatment efficiency which approached 90%, 98%, 87%, 85%, and 87% for COD, TSS, TKN, TP, and total phenols, respectively. Constructed wetlands also showed high removal efficiency for NH4+-N. Nitrate concentration maintained low in both CWs basins, probably due to the prevalence of high denitrification rates that efficiently removed the NO3--N produced by NH4+-N oxidation. Despite the increased removal percentages, pollutant concentration in effluent exceeded the allowable limits for discharge in water bodies, suggesting that additional practices, including enhanced pre-application treatment and/or higher dilution rates, are required to make this practice effective for OMW management. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/260 Mon, 12 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-03-12 4 1 Article 260 271 2073-4441 Treatment of Olive Mill Wastewater with Constructed Wetlands 2012-03-12 doi: 10.3390/w4010260 Iosif E. Kapellakis Nikolaos V. Paranychianakis Konstantinos P. Tsagarakis Andreas N. Angelakis http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/237 Recent coastal storms in southern Africa have highlighted the need for more proactive management of the coastline. Within the southern and eastern African region the availability of coastal information is poor. The greatest gap in information is the likely effects of a combination of severe sea storms and future sea level rise (SLR) on the shoreline. This lack of information creates a barrier to informed decision making. This research outlines a practical localized approach to this problem, which can be applied as a first order assessment within the region. In so doing it provides a cost effective and simple decision support tool for the built environment and disaster professionals in development and disaster assessments. In a South African context the newly promulgated Integrated Coastal Management Act requires that all proposed coastal developments take into consideration future SLR, however such information currently does not exist, despite it being vital for informed planning in the coastal zone. This practical approach has been applied to the coastline of Durban, South Africa as a case study. The outputs are presented in a Geographic Information System (GIS) based freeware viewer tool enabling ease of access to both professionals and laypersons. This demonstrates that a simple approach can provide valuable information about the current and future risk of flooding and coastal erosion under climate change to buildings, infrastructure as well as natural features along the coast. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/237 Mon, 05 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-03-05 4 1 Article 237 259 2073-4441 A Perspective on Sea Level Rise and Coastal Storm Surge from Southern and Eastern Africa: A Case Study Near Durban, South Africa 2012-03-05 doi: 10.3390/w4010237 Andrew A. Mather Derek D. Stretch http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/219 Extra treatment stages are required to polish the secondary effluent for unrestricted reuse, primarily for agricultural irrigation. Improved technology for the removal of particles, turbidity, bacteria and cysts, without the use of disinfectants is based on MicroFiltration (MF) and UltraFiltration (UF) membrane technology and in series with Reverse Osmosis (RO) for dissolved solids removal. Field experiments were conducted using a mobile UF and RO membrane pilot unit at a capacity of around 1.0 m3/hr. A management model was defined and tested towards optimal polishing of secondary effluent. The two major purposes of the management model are: (i) to delineate a methodology for economic assessment of optimal membrane technology implementation for secondary effluent upgrading for unrestricted use, and; (ii) to provide guidelines for optimal RO membrane selection in regards to the pretreatment stage. The defined linear model takes into account the costs of the feed secondary effluent, the UF pretreatment and the RO process. Technological constraints refer primarily to the longevity of the membrane and their performance. Final treatment cost (the objective function) includes investment, operation and maintenance expenses, UF pretreatment, RO treatment, post treatment and incentive for low salinity permeate use. The cost range of water for irrigation according to the model is between 15 and 42 US cents per m3. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/219 Mon, 05 Mar 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-03-05 4 1 Article 219 236 2073-4441 Economic Assessment of an Integrated Membrane System for Secondary Effluent Polishing for Unrestricted Reuse 2012-03-05 doi: 10.3390/w4010219 Amos Bick Leonid Gillerman Yossi Manor Gideon Oron http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/196 The impacts of flood events that occurred in autumn 2011 in the Italian regions of Liguria and Tuscany revived the engagement of the public decision-maker to enhance the synergy of flood control and land use planning. In this context, the design of efficient flood risk mitigation strategies and their subsequent implementation critically relies on a careful vulnerability analysis of the fixed and mobile elements exposed to flood hazard. In this paper we develop computation schemes enabling dynamic vulnerability and risk analyses for a broad typological variety of elements at risk. To show their applicability, a series of prime examples are discussed in detail, e.g. a bridge deck impacted by the flood and a car, first displaced and subsequently exposed to collision with fixed objects. We hold the view that it is essential that the derivation of the computational schemes to assess the vulnerability of endangered objects should be based on classical and fluid mechanics. In such a way, we aim to complement from a methodological perspective the existing, mainly empirical, vulnerability and risk assessment approaches and to support the design of effective flood risk mitigation strategies by defusing the main criticalities within the systems prone to flood risk. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/196 Tue, 28 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-02-28 4 1 Article 196 218 2073-4441 Physical Vulnerability Assessment Based on Fluid and Classical Mechanics to Support Cost-Benefit Analysis of Flood Risk Mitigation Strategies 2012-02-28 doi: 10.3390/w4010196 Bruno Mazzorana Laura Levaggi Omar Formaggioni Claudio Volcan http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/170 Changes in the seasonal cycle of mean sea level (MSL) may affect the heights of storm surges and thereby flood risk in coastal areas. This study investigates the intra- and inter-annual variability of monthly MSL and its link to the North Atlantic Oscillation using records from 13 tide gauges located in the German Bight. The amplitudes of the seasonal MSL cycle are not regionally uniform and vary between 20 and 29 cm. Generally, the amplitudes are smaller at the southwestern stations, increasing as one travels to the northeastern part. The amplitudes, as well as the phase of the seasonal cycle, are characterized by a large inter-annual and inter-decadal variability, but no long-term trend could be detected. Nevertheless, in the last two decades annual maximum peaks more frequently occurred in January and February, whereas beforehand an accumulation was detected for the November and December period. These changes in phase in the various sea level time series are consistent with a shift in the annual cycle, which is, however, not significant. The changes are associated with strongly increasing trends in monthly MSL of the winter season (J–M), which are considerably higher compared to the remaining seasons. For the same season, the MSL and North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) indices show strong similarities, resulting in statistically significant correlations (r ~ 0.7). Hence, these changes are linked with changing pressure conditions over the North Atlantic, which lead to a strong phase of positive values in the NAO index between the 1960’s and 1990’s. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/170 Fri, 24 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-02-24 4 1 Article 170 195 2073-4441 Mean Sea Level Variability and Influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation on Long-Term Trends in the German Bight 2012-02-24 doi: 10.3390/w4010170 Sönke Dangendorf Thomas Wahl Hartmut Hein Jürgen Jensen Stephan Mai Christoph Mudersbach http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/157 California’s development and success have been shaped by its ability to manage floods. This management has varied over the history of California’s economic and political development and continues in various forms today. California will always have flood problems. A range of options are available to aid in flood management problems and have been used over time. These options can be contrasted with flood management elsewhere and the types of options used to manage other types of hazards in California, such as earthquakes, wildfires, and droughts. In the future, flood management in California will require greater reliance on local funding and leadership, reflecting diminished federal and state funding, with more effective state and federal guidance. Effective flood management will also tend to integrate flood management with actions to achieve environmental and other water supply objectives, both to gain revenues from a broader range of beneficiaries as well as to make more efficient use of land and water in a state where both are often scarce. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/157 Tue, 14 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-02-14 4 1 Article 157 169 2073-4441 Flood Management in California 2012-02-14 doi: 10.3390/w4010157 Jay R. Lund http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/135 The European Directive on the Assessment and Management of Flood Risks is likely to cause changes to flood policy in Germany and other member states. With its risk governance approach, it introduces a holistic and catchment-oriented flood risk management and tries to overcome shortcomings of the past, such as the event-driven construction of mainly structural measures. However, there is leeway for interpretation in implementing the directive. The present paper gives an overview on the implementation of the floods directive in Germany and is divided into two qualitative empirical case studies. Case Study I investigates the level of acceptance of the floods directive among decision-makers in the German part of the Rhine river basin. Findings show that the federal states respond differently to the impulse given by the floods directive. Whereas some decision-makers opt for a pro-forma implementation, others take it as a starting point to systematically improve their flood policy. Case Study II presents recommendations for a successful implementation of flood risk management plans that have been developed within a project for the water authority in Bavaria and might be interesting for other federal/member states. For a participation of the interested parties on the level of shared decision-making, the planning process has to work on sub-management-plan level (15–20 communities). The water resources authority has to adopt a multi-faceted role (expert, responsible or interested party depending on the discussed topics). http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/135 Thu, 02 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-02-02 4 1 Article 135 156 2073-4441 Towards a Risk Governance Culture in Flood Policy—Findings from the Implementation of the “Floods Directive” in Germany 2012-02-02 doi: 10.3390/w4010135 Marc Daniel Heintz Maria Hagemeier-Klose Klaus Wagner http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/123 The rapid urbanization facing developing countries is increasing pressure on public institutions to provide adequate supplies of clean water to populations. In most developing countries, the general public is not involved in strategies and policies regarding enhancement, conservation, and management of water supply systems. To assist governments and decision makers in providing potable water to meet the increasing demand due to the rapid urbanization, this study sought to characterize existing water supply systems and obtain public opinion for identifying a community water supply system model for households in a residential neighborhood in Lomé, Togo. Existing water supply systems in the study area consist of bucket-drawn water wells, mini water tower systems, rainwater harvesting, and public piped water. Daily domestic water consumption in the study area compared well with findings on water uses per capita from Sub-Saharan Africa, but was well below daily water usage in developed nations. Based on the surveys, participants thought highly of a large scale community water tower and expressed interest in maintaining it. Even though people rely on water sources deemed convenient for drinking, they also reported limited confidence in the quality of these sources. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/123 Wed, 01 Feb 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-02-01 4 1 Article 123 134 2073-4441 Improving Water Supply Systems for Domestic Uses in Urban Togo: The Case of a Suburb in Lomé 2012-02-01 doi: 10.3390/w4010123 Laurent Ahiablame Bernard Engel Taisha Venort http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/107 Urban water reuse is one of the most rapidly growing water reuse applications worldwide and one of the major elements of the sustainable management of urban water cycle. Because of the high probability of direct contact between consumers and recycled water, many technical and regulatory challenges have to be overcome in order to minimize health risks at affordable cost. This paper illustrates the keys to success of one of the first urban water reuse projects in the island Bora Bora, French Polynesia. Special emphasis is given on the reliability of operation of the membrane tertiary treatment, economic viability in terms of pricing of recycled water and operating costs, as well as on the benefits of water reuse for the sustainable development of tourist areas. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/107 Tue, 31 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-01-31 4 1 Article 107 122 2073-4441 Relevance and Benefits of Urban Water Reuse in Tourist Areas 2012-01-31 doi: 10.3390/w4010107 Valentina Lazarova Vincent Sturny Gaston Tong Sang http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/85 The State of Iowa, located in the Midwestern United States, has experienced an increased frequency of large floods in recent decades. After extreme flooding in the summer of 2008, the Iowa Flood Center (IFC) was established for advanced research and education specifically related to floods. IFC seeks to improve Iowa’s flood hazard awareness through the development of easily accessible, high-quality mapping products. Mapping initiatives consist of two model development approaches: (1) statewide floodplain delineation using one-dimensional (1D) models, and (2) urban flood mapping using detailed one-dimensional/two-dimensional (2D) coupled models. The statewide floodplain project will benefit Iowans through the creation of a comprehensive set of floodplain maps developed under a single consistent methodology. These will be important tools in evaluating flood risk, regulating floodplains, and participating in the National Flood Insurance Program. Detailed urban flood analyses are used to develop inundation map libraries. These map libraries are meant to supplement National Weather Service river stage flood forecasts by providing a visual representation of potential flood extent according to predicted river stage at stream gage locations. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/85 Mon, 16 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-01-16 4 1 Article 85 106 2073-4441 Inundation Mapping Initiatives of the Iowa Flood Center: Statewide Coverage and Detailed Urban Flooding Analysis 2012-01-16 doi: 10.3390/w4010085 Daniel Gilles Nathan Young Harvest Schroeder Jesse Piotrowski Yi-Jia Chang http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/63 This paper analyzes the effects of climate change on water availability and use in the Limpopo River Basin of Southern Africa, using a linked modeling system consisting of a semi-distributed global hydrological model and the Water Simulation Module (WSM) of the International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT). Although the WSM simulates all major water use sectors, the focus of this study is to evaluate the implications of climate change on irrigation water supply in the catchments of the Limpopo River Basin within the four riparian countries: Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. The analysis found that water resources of the Limpopo River Basin are already stressed under today’s climate conditions. Projected water infrastructure and management interventions are expected to improve the situation by 2050 if current climate conditions continue into the future. However, under the climate change scenarios studied here, water supply availability is expected to worsen considerably by 2050. Assessing hydrological impacts of climate change is crucial given that expansion of irrigated areas has been postulated as a key adaptation strategy for Sub-Saharan Africa. Such expansion will need to take into account future changes in water availability in African river basins. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/63 Mon, 16 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-01-16 4 1 Article 63 84 2073-4441 Climate Change Impacts on Water Availability and Use in the Limpopo River Basin 2012-01-16 doi: 10.3390/w4010063 Tingju Zhu Claudia Ringler http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/45 This paper presents the basic principles for the integration of the water and carbon footprints cost into the resource and environmental costs respectively, taking the suggestions set by the Water Framework Directive (WFD) 2000/60/EC one step forward. WFD states that full water cost recovery (FWCR) should be based on the estimation of the three sub-costs related: direct; environmental; and resource cost. It also strongly suggests the EU Member States develop and apply effective water pricing policies to achieve FWCR. These policies must be socially just to avoid any social injustice phenomena. This is a very delicate task to handle, especially within the fragile economic conditions that the EU is facing today. Water losses play a crucial role for the FWC estimation. Water losses should not be neglected since they are one of the major “water uses” in any water supply network. A methodology is suggested to reduce water losses and the related Non Revenue Water (NRW) index. An Expert Decision Support System is proposed to assess the FWC incorporating the Water and Carbon Footprint costs. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/45 Mon, 16 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-01-16 4 1 Article 45 62 2073-4441 Integrating the Carbon and Water Footprints’ Costs in the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC Full Water Cost Recovery Concept: Basic Principles Towards Their Reliable Calculation and Socially Just Allocation 2012-01-16 doi: 10.3390/w4010045 Vasilis Kanakoudis Stavroula Tsitsifli Anastasia Papadopoulou http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/28 Rheraya watershed already suffers from the impacts of climate variability and will be further affected by climate change. Severe water shortages and extremely fragile ecological conditions necessitate careful attention to water resources management. The aim of this study is to analyze Rheraya’s future water situation under different scenarios of socio-economic development and climate change until 2100. The Water Evaluation and Planning System model (WEAP) has been applied to estimate the current water demands and the increased water demands resulting from climate change. WEAP was calibrated using meteorological and demand observations, then, updated with present-day and future climatic conditions using the Statistical Down-scaling Model with two projections (A2, B2) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Those projections show an increase in temperature of about 2–3 °C and a reduction in precipitation of 40–60% with respect to baseline. The results show that the pressure on Rheraya’s water resources will increase, leading to greater competition for surface water, and that domestic, tourist, livestock and agricultural demands will not be met by the year 2100. The Results also demonstrate that the assessments of adaptation strategies proposed by decision makers are effective but not sustainable for the watershed. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/28 Mon, 09 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-01-09 4 1 Article 28 44 2073-4441 Climate Change Impacts on Water Supply and Demand in Rheraya Watershed (Morocco), with Potential Adaptation Strategies 2012-01-09 doi: 10.3390/w4010028 Saloua Rochdane Barbara Reichert Mohammed Messouli Abdelaziz Babqiqi Mohammed Yacoubi Khebiza http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/12 This paper discusses the deterioration of indigenous irrigation system traditionally developed in the past to serve the peri-urban agricultural lands that have been affected by rapid urbanization in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region. The study is based on data collection from mapping, field survey and interview analyses and identifies current canal deteriorating conditions in four categories: filled, covered, narrowed and shallow, and normal. The findings reveal that different types of canal deteriorations are associated with their private ownership. A typology of land configurations of urban and non-urban land uses along private canals is pointed out in order to understand their relation with canal deterioration types. Caused by urbanization, the degradation of the existing canal networks has provoked conflicts between local farmers and new proprietors, especially real estate developers. Such canal deterioration essentially reduces their ability to convey a water supply to feed agricultural lands, consequently leading to the discontinuation of land use for agriculture and its eventual transformation into urban developments. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/12 Mon, 09 Jan 2012 00:00:00 CET Water 2012-01-09 4 1 Article 12 27 2073-4441 Neglected Canals: Deterioration of Indigenous Irrigation System by Urbanization in the West Peri-Urban Area of Bangkok Metropolitan Region 2012-01-09 doi: 10.3390/w4010012 Vudipong Davivongs Makoto Yokohari Yuji Hara http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/1 Due to the various parameters that influence air solubility and microbubble production in dissolved air flotation (DAF), a multitude of values that cover a large range for these parameters are suggested for field systems. An unpacked saturator and an air quantification unit were designed to specify the effects of power, pressure, temperature, hydraulic retention time, and air flow on the DAF performance. It was determined that a pressure of 621 kPa, hydraulic retention time of 18.2 min, and air flow of 8.5 L/h would be the best controlled parameters for maximum efficiency in this unit. A temperature of 7 °C showed the greatest microbubble production, but temperature control would not be expected in actual application. The maximum microbubble flow from the designed system produced 30 mL of air (±1.5) per L of water under these conditions with immediate startup. The maximum theoretical dissolved air volume of 107 mL (±6) was achieved at a retention time of 2 h and a pressure of 621 kPa. To isolate and have better control over the various DAF operational parameters, the DAF unit was operated without the unsaturated flow stream. This mode of operation led to the formation of large bubbles at peak bubble production rates. In a real-world application, the large bubble formation will be avoided by mixing with raw unsaturated stream and by altering the location of dissolved air output flow. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/4/1/1 Tue, 27 Dec 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-12-27 4 1 Article 1 11 2073-4441 Optimizing the Air Dissolution Parameters in an Unpacked Dissolved Air Flotation System 2011-12-27 doi: 10.3390/w4010001 Adam Dassey Chandra Theegala http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1174 We use two separate quasi-natural experiments to explore the relative importance of information and administrative costs in explaining non-take-up of water subsidy. The first “experiment” shows that the take-up rate of a household with lower administrative costs is not significantly different from otherwise identical households. In contrast, using the same program, the second “experiment” reveals that the take-up rate of a household that is more likely to be informed is substantially higher compared to otherwise identical households. These findings support the idea that information plays a major role in explaining non-take-up of water subsidy. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1174 Fri, 16 Dec 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-12-16 3 4 Article 1174 1196 2073-4441 Explaining Non-Take-up of Water Subsidy 2011-12-16 doi: 10.3390/w3041174 Momi Dahan Udi Nisan http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1149 On 13th January 2011 major flooding occurred throughout most of the Brisbane River catchment, most severely in Toowoomba and the Lockyer Creek catchment (where 23 people drowned), the Bremer River catchment and in Brisbane, the state capital of Queensland. Some 56,200 claims have been received by insurers with payouts totalling $2.55 billion. This paper backgrounds weather and climatic factors implicated in the flooding and the historical flood experience of Brisbane. We examine the time history of water releases from the Wivenhoe dam, which have been accused of aggravating damage downstream. The dam was built in response to even worse flooding in 1974 and now serves as Brisbane’s main water supply. In our analysis, the dam operators made sub-optimal decisions by neglecting forecasts of further rainfall and assuming a ‘no rainfall’ scenario. Questions have also been raised about the availability of insurance cover for riverine flood, and the Queensland government’s decision not to insure its infrastructure. These and other questions have led to Federal and State government inquiries. We argue that insurance is a form of risk transfer for the residual risk following risk management efforts and cannot in itself be a solution for poor land-use planning. With this in mind, we discuss the need for risk-related insurance premiums to encourage flood risk mitigating behaviours by all actors, and for transparency in the availability of flood maps. Examples of good flood risk management to arise from this flood are described. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1149 Fri, 09 Dec 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-12-09 3 4 Article 1149 1173 2073-4441 The 2011 Brisbane Floods: Causes, Impacts and Implications 2011-12-09 doi: 10.3390/w3041149 Robin C. van den Honert John McAneney http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1139 Natural attenuation of groundwater contamination occurs at some level for all aquifers impacted with organic contaminants. The issues regarding natural attenuation are whether it takes place at a sufficient rate to be protective of human health and the environment. Implementation of a Monitored Natural Attenuation (MNA) remedial alternative for groundwater requires parties responsible for the contamination to demonstrate to regulators and the public that MNA is protective at a given site. Analysis of MNA for remediation of karst aquifers is hampered by a lack of understanding of biodegradation in karst environments. The lack of studies examining biodegradation in karst aquifers may in large part be due to the widespread perception that contaminants are rapidly flushed out of karst aquifers resulting in insufficient residence times for contaminants to biodegrade. In highly developed and well-connected conduit systems, the rate of contaminant migration is perceived to be much faster than the rate of biodegradation. This perception of contaminant transport is largely incorrect. Tracer studies for karst aquifers often indicate that these aquifers are characterized by diverse flow regimes and storage capabilities. Additionally, it is also believed that if bioremediation in bedrock aquifers is dependent upon contact between surface-attached bacteria and contaminants, then bioremediation would be limited by the low surface-area-to-volume ratio (SA/V) of karst aquifers. A quantitative basis, however, for accepting or rejecting the assumption that attached bacteria dominate the biodegradation process in karst conduits has not been shown. The objective of this research was to determine if free-living karst bacteria from contributed as much to toluene biodegradation as attached bacteria. This is an important area of research. Research indicates bacteria are both attached and free-living in karst aquifers and it is unrealistic to think that only the attached bacteria facilitate biodegradation. The groundwater use in all tests was taken from a karst aquifer know to be impacted by BTEX. The resulting first-order rate constants were computed to be 0.014 per hour for the open system and 0.0155 per hour for the packed reactor system. Biodegradation of toluene in flow-through laboratory karst systems of varying SA/V indicated that the observed biodegradation of toluene was attributable to free-living karst bacteria and not limited by low SA/V in karst. This was evidenced by the fact that the systems with five-fold variation in SA/V were shown to have observed pseudo first order reaction rate constants that differed by only 7.0%. If attached bacteria were primarily responsible for biodegradation and limiting, a proportional difference in the observed rates relative to the difference in surface area would be expected. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1139 Thu, 08 Dec 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-12-08 3 4 Article 1139 1148 2073-4441 The Role of Attached and Free-Living Bacteria in Biodegradation in Karst Aquifers 2011-12-08 doi: 10.3390/w3041139 Roger Painter Tom Byl Lonnie Sharpe Ahmad Kheder Justin Harris http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1128 The treated wastewater of Agadir M’zar plant has a good physico-chemical quality and it contains important nutrients (NPK: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium). However, the reuse of this water, without disinfecting it, for irrigating the golf grass in the Agadir region, revealed the presence of a bacterial load that can hinder the quality and suitability of spaces for a population that is very demanding. Among the various methods of water disinfection, chlorination with bleach is the least expensive and the most systematically simple. Its effectiveness depends only on the pH of the waters to be disinfected. This study reports the results of disinfection of M’zar plant wastewater with a solution of sodium hypochlorite (bleach), and their reuse for irrigating the golf grass. For this purpose, we carried out a monitoring protocol for germination and growth parameters (number of tillers and leaf length) in order to study and compare the effect of disinfected treated wastewater (DTWW) and groundwater (GW) on the plant turf. The obtained result showed that the disinfection with bleach increased the salinity of the treated wastewater and can affect the permeability of soils and crops. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1128 Thu, 08 Dec 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-12-08 3 4 Article 1128 1138 2073-4441 Disinfection of Treated Wastewater and its Reuse in the Irrigation of Golf Grass: The Case of Plant M’zar Agadir-Morocco 2011-12-08 doi: 10.3390/w3041128 Hind Mouhanni Abelaziz Bendou Salah Er-Raki http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1112 The effects of plant species (castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) versus sunflower (Helianthus annus L.)) and irrigation regime (freshwater versus secondary treated municipal wastewater) on soil properties and on seed and biodiesel yield were studied in a three year pot trial. Plant species were irrigated at rates according to their water requirements with either freshwater or wastewater effluent. Pots irrigated with freshwater received commercial fertilizer, containing N, P, and K, applied at the beginning of each irrigation period. The results obtained in this study showed that irrigation with effluent did not result in significant changes in soil pH, soil organic matter (SOM), total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), and dehydrogenase activity, whereas soil available P was found to increase in the upper soil layer. Soil salinity varied slightly throughout the experiment in effluent irrigated pots but no change was detected at the end of the experiment compared to the initial value, suggesting sufficient salt leaching. Pots irrigated with effluent had higher soil salinity, P, and dehydrogenase activity but lower SOM and TKN than freshwater irrigated pots. Sunflower showed greater SOM and TKN values than castor bean suggesting differences between plant species in the microorganisms carrying out C and N mineralization in the soil. Plant species irrigated with freshwater achieved higher seed yield compared to those irrigated with effluent probably reflecting the lower level of soil salinity in freshwater irrigated pots. Castor bean achieved greater seed yield than sunflower. Biodiesel production followed the pattern of seed yield. The findings of this study suggest that wastewater effluent can constitute an important source of irrigation water and nutrients for bioenergy crop cultivations with minor adverse impacts on soil properties and seed yield. Plant species play an important role with regard to the changes in soil properties and to the related factors of seed and biodiesel yields. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1112 Thu, 24 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-11-24 3 4 Article 1112 1127 2073-4441 Irrigation of Castor Bean (Ricinus communis L.) and Sunflower (Helianthus annus L.) Plant Species with Municipal Wastewater Effluent: Impacts on Soil Properties and Seed Yield 2011-11-24 doi: 10.3390/w3041112 Michalis K. Chatzakis Vasileios A. Tzanakakis Duncan D. Mara Andreas N. Angelakis http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1092 An assessment of soil sensitivity was carried out regarding the soil suitability for wastewater reuse. This was done based on digital soil maps joined with spatial data on soil properties using Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Six major risks of primarily agricultural significance were defined in close collaboration with regional experts. The changes in particular soil and groundwater properties as a result of irrigation with low water quality were evaluated and discussed. Based on the local soil parameters, the specific sensitivity and suitability grades were assessed for the respective soil unit concerning irrigation with treated wastewater (TWW) using standard and specially developed methods. In conclusion, with regard to soil suitability criteria, sensitivity and suitability maps, including the aggregated total sensitivity, were presented for supporting sustainable irrigation practices. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1092 Thu, 24 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-11-24 3 4 Article 1092 1111 2073-4441 Evaluation of Soil Sensitivity towards the Irrigation with Treated Wastewater in the Jordan River Region 2011-11-24 doi: 10.3390/w3041092 Karsten Schacht Sven Gönster Elisabeth Jüschke Yona Chen Jorge Tarchitzky Jawad Al-Bakri Emad Al-Karablieh Bernd Marschner http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1077 Since groundwater is diminishing rapidly in rural Beijing, rainwater harvesting for irrigation is being promoted. As the cost of pumping up groundwater is low, farmers have few incentives to use rainwater. To promote the consumption of rainwater, the Beijing Water Authority may in the future raise the cost of using groundwater by introducing a charge. Higher cost of groundwater will increase the consumption of rainwater, but can have a negative impact on farmers’ incomes. This paper aims to study how to increase rainwater consumption without discouraging farming. The relation between the cost of groundwater and the consumption of rainwater has been studied by analyzing the elasticity of groundwater demand graphically. If the cost of groundwater is lower than the elasticity threshold, farmers lack incentives to use rainwater. If the cost of groundwater is higher than the threshold, rainwater consumption increases. The elasticity threshold of groundwater can move down following a change in the characteristics of rainwater harvesting systems. With linear programming analysis it has been found that increasing subsidies and enlarging the size of rainwater harvesting systems decreases the elasticity threshold of groundwater. This results in a proposal for a realistic charge for groundwater, affecting the consumption of rainwater but also taking into account the income of the farmers. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1077 Mon, 14 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-11-14 3 4 Article 1077 1091 2073-4441 Optimal Level of Groundwater Charge to Promote Rainwater Usage for Irrigation in Rural Beijing 2011-11-14 doi: 10.3390/w3041077 Xiao Liang Meine Pieter van Dijk http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1050 A groundwater, sediment and soil chemistry and mineralogical study has been performed to investigate the sources and mobilization process of Arsenic (As) in shallow aquifers of Bangladesh. The groundwater from the shallow aquifers is characterized by high concentrations of Arsenic (47.5–216.8 µg/L), iron (0.85–5.83 mg/L), and phosphate, along with high electrical conductivity (EC). The groundwater has both very low oxidation-reduction potential (Eh) and dissolved oxygen (DO) values indicating reducing conditions. By contrast, the deep aquifers and surface waters (pond, canal) have very low concentrations of Arsenic ( < 6 µg/L), iron (0.12–0.39 mg/L), and phosphate along with a relatively low EC. Furthermore, the values of Eh and DO are high, indicating oxic to suboxic conditions. Arsenic is inversely correlated with Eh values in the upper aquifer, whereas no relationship in the deeper aquifer is observed. These results suggest that As mobilization is clearly linked to the development of reducing conditions. The clayey silt, enriched in Fe, Mn, Al oxides and organic matter, and deposited in the middle unit of shallow aquifers, contains moderately high concentrations of As, whereas the sediments of deep aquifers and silty mud surface soils from paddy fields and ponds contain a low content of As (Daudkandi area). Arsenic is strongly correlated with the concentrations of Fe, Mn and Al oxides in the core samples from the Daudkandi and Marua areas. Arsenic is present in the oxide phase of Fe and Mn, phyllosilicate minerals and in organic matter in sediments. This study suggests that adsorption or precipitation of As-rich Fe oxyhydroxide on the surface or inner sites of biotite might be responsible for As concentrations found in altered biotite minerals by Seddique et al. Microbially or geochemically mediated reductive dissolution of Fe oxyhydroxides is the main mechanism for As release. The reducing conditions are caused by respiratory decomposition of organic matter, either sedimentary or labile organic C. The process can be accelerated by agricultural activity and domestic organic wastes. An agricultural fertilizer can directly contribute As to groundwater as well as promote As mobilization by ion-exchange with phosphorus. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1050 Fri, 11 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-11-11 3 4 Article 1050 1076 2073-4441 Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater of Bangladesh: Perspectives on Geochemical, Microbial and Anthropogenic Issues 2011-11-11 doi: 10.3390/w3041050 Hossain M. Anawar Junji Akai Martin Mihaljevič Arif M. Sikder Golam Ahmed Shafi M. Tareq Mohammad M. Rahman http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1031 Direct policies for the management of nonpoint source pollution are difficult to apply given asymmetric information, spatial and temporal variability, and uncertainty. There is increasing awareness that these limitations may be overcome where profitable mitigation practices are broadly adopted by polluters. Nitrification inhibitors (chemicals applied to paddocks that retard the nitrification process in soils) are a rare example of a mitigation practice that reduces pollutant loads and potentially increases farm profit through promoting pasture production. This study investigates their capacity to achieve both goals to inform policy makers and producers of their potential for simultaneously improving farm profit and water quality. With an assumed 10 percent increase in pasture production in response to nitrification inhibitor application, nitrification inhibitors are a profitable innovation because greater pasture production supports higher stocking rates. Nonetheless, their overall impact on farm profit is low, even when the cost of inhibitors or their impact on subsequent pasture production is substantially altered. However, inhibitors are found to be a critical mitigation practice for farmers posed with decreasing leaching loads to satisfy regulatory requirements. These findings suggest that, despite their shortcomings for nonpoint pollution regulation, direct policies appear to be the only way to motivate producers to account for their impact on environmental values given the current lack of profitable mitigations. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1031 Fri, 11 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-11-11 3 4 Article 1031 1049 2073-4441 Profitability of Nitrification Inhibitors for Abatement of Nitrate Leaching on a Representative Dairy Farm in the Waikato Region of New Zealand 2011-11-11 doi: 10.3390/w3041031 Graeme J. Doole Upa H. Paragahawewa http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1005 Predicting the impact of warming and acidifying on oceans on the early development life history stages of invertebrates although difficult, is essential in order to anticipate the severity and consequences of future climate change. This review summarises the current literature and meta-analyses on the early life-history stages of invertebrates including fertilisation, larval development and the implications for dispersal and settlement of populations. Although fertilisation appears robust to near future predictions of ocean acidification, larval development is much more vulnerable and across invertebrate groups, evidence indicates that the impacts may be severe. This is especially for those many marine organisms which start to calcify in their larval and/or juvenile stages. Species-specificity and variability in responses and current gaps in the literature are highlighted, including the need for studies to investigate the total effects of climate change including the synergistic impact of temperature, and the need for long-term multigenerational experiments to determine whether vulnerable invertebrate species have the capacity to adapt to elevations in atmospheric CO2 over the next century. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/1005 Mon, 07 Nov 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-11-07 3 4 Review 1005 1030 2073-4441 The Impact of Ocean Acidification on Reproduction, Early Development and Settlement of Marine Organisms 2011-11-07 doi: 10.3390/w3041005 Pauline M. Ross Laura Parker Wayne A. O’Connor Elizabeth A. Bailey http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/988 In the present paper, the possibility of the treated municipal wastewater (TMWW) reuse in agriculture, produced by the Wastewater Treatment Plants of Aitoloakarnania prefecture, one of the greatest agricultural regions of Greece, has been investigated. The boundaries of agricultural soils and the irrigated crops were defined, and the water requirements of crops were calculated. Also the chemical characteristics of the TMWW were determined for the safe reuse in crop production, and for the protection of soils from potential pollution. The research conducted in this area is expected to constitute the basis for an integrated TMWW reuse planning in soils and crops, in the context of sustainable agriculture, and environmental protection. It must be mentioned that the Messolongion-Aitolikon lagoon is in the area under investigation, one of the largest wetland ecosystem of Mediterranean region, which makes the area ecologically sensitive. The ultimate scope of this study is to describe the planning of the TMWW reuse on the basis of soil characteristics, climatic factors, and irrigation water requirements of the crops, grown in this ecologically sensitive area. The volume of the effluents produced by the wastewater treatment plants of Messolonghion, Agrinion, Nafpaktos, Aitoliko and Thermo could cover 19.3%, 25.14%, >100%, 17.18 and 87.84% of the irrigation water requirements, respectively. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/988 Thu, 20 Oct 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-10-20 3 4 Article 988 1004 2073-4441 Wastewater Reuse Planning in Agriculture: The Case of Aitoloakarnania, Western Greece 2011-10-20 doi: 10.3390/w3040988 Ioannis K. Kalavrouziotis Christos Arambatzis Dimitrios Kalfountzos Soterios P. Varnavas http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/976 Fit-for-purpose potable source substitution of appropriate water end uses with rainwater or recycled water is often essential to maintain water security in growing urban regions. This paper provides the results of a detailed supply-demand forecasting review of a unique tri-supply (i.e., potable, A+ recycled and rain water sources reticulated to household) urban water scheme located in Queensland, Australia. Despite the numerous benefits of this scheme, system efficiency (e.g., reduced demand levels, water treatment, low chemical and energy use) and economic viability (i.e., capital and operating costs per kL of supply) aspects need to be considered against derived potable water savings. The review underpinned the design of a framework to enhance the schemes supply-demand balance and reduce the unit cost of alternative source supplies. Detailed scenario and sensitivity analysis identified the possibility of a refined scheme design, whereby the A+ recycled water supply would be reticulated to the cold water input tap to the washing machine, and the rain tank that originally supplied this end use be removed from future constructed households. The refined scheme design enhances the present recycled plant utilisation rate and reduces the cost to home owners when building their dwelling due to the removed requirement to install a rain tank to indoor end uses; such actions reduce the overall unit cost of the scheme. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/976 Thu, 13 Oct 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-10-13 3 4 Article 976 987 2073-4441 Framework for Enhancing the Supply-Demand Balance of a Tri-Supply Urban Water Scheme in Australia 2011-10-13 doi: 10.3390/w3040976 Edoardo Bertone Rodney A. Stewart http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/964 Interest in artificial recharge of groundwater using pretreated wastewater continues to increase, especially in semi-arid countries. After the artificial recharge and natural treatment, the water could be extracted through boreholes pumping for direct irrigation. The selection of suitable locations for artificial recharge should be based on hydrogeological conditions, economic evaluation and environmental considerations. Clogging of boreholes that are used for artificial recharge is a serious problem and requires proper planning to reduce it. This paper deals with the investigation of the possibilities and prospects of aquifer recharge via boreholes using treated wastewater. Firstly, the aquifer recharge techniques, the proposed criteria of waste and the clogging effect are presented. Secondly, the possibility of application of artificial recharge in the South-Eastern Mesaoria aquifer of Cyprus is examined. Based on hydrogeological results, artificial recharge using tertiary treated wastewater via boreholes is one of the options available for increasing the groundwater reserves of this aquifer. The recycled water will infiltrate through gravel pack, providing favorable conditions for ventilation and laminar flow due to small water flow velocity. The treatment works include the removal of the fat, oil and grease (FOG) and cyanides (CN−) content in order to meet the upper acceptable limits. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/4/964 Mon, 26 Sep 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-09-26 3 4 Review 964 975 2073-4441 Artificial Recharge via Boreholes Using Treated Wastewater: Possibilities and Prospects 2011-09-26 doi: 10.3390/w3040964 Kostas Voudouris http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/949 Setting water policy depends fundamentally on the location of the supply and demand for water and the legal/institutional framework for water management. Within and across nations, laws and structures for water management decision making vary, often significantly. Recognizing these differences can aid in overcoming challenges inherent to the assessment and management of transboundary waters. This paper examines current binational efforts to develop the scientific information to support water management decision making along the United States-Mexico border. The particular focus is on transboundary aquifers along the border shared by the states of Arizona in the United States and Sonora in Mexico. Legislation enacted in the United States (Public Law 109–448) established a governmental-academic partnership to assess transboundary aquifers. The paper discusses the establishment of a working partnership between Mexico and the United States, which led to an official binational cooperative framework for transboundary assessment. It explains how the extensive effort to recognize and accommodate asymmetries in the underlying legal and regulatory frameworks for water management was essential to meeting the objectives of both countries. The focus of the binational investigations is briefly discussed. The paper concludes by noting the opportunities for additional cross-border scientific and water management collaboration should funding and institutional commitments continue. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/949 Fri, 23 Sep 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-09-23 3 3 Article 949 963 2073-4441 The Importance of Institutional Asymmetries to the Development of Binational Aquifer Assessment Programs: The Arizona-Sonora Experience 2011-09-23 doi: 10.3390/w3030949 Sharon B. Megdal Christopher A. Scott http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/923 Bankfull hydraulic geometry relationships relate bankfull stream dimensions, such as cross-sectional area, width, mean depth, mean velocity, width to depth ratio, and slope to bankfull discharge. These relationships can assist in determining a design discharge for stream restoration and management projects. This study assessed 27 stable streams located in the Inner Bluegrass and Outer Bluegrass regions of Kentucky. Reaches were selected based on the presence of a U.S. Geological Survey gage, as well as other conditions such as presence of readily identifiable bankfull indicators, stability indices, and site accessibility. Bankfull channel dimensions and discharges were determined, and hydraulic geometry relationships were developed for both the Inner Bluegrass and Outer Bluegrass regions. These scaling relationships for karst-influenced streams were similar to others reported in the literature for non-karst areas. Significant differences between the regions were found only for bankfull width and width-to-depth ratio. Streams in the Inner Bluegrass tended to be more narrow and deep at bankfull discharges less than 10 m3s−1 and wider and shallower at bankfull discharges greater than 20 m3s−1 as compared to stream in the Outer Bluegrass. It is suspected that physiographic conditions related to local geology and/or riparian vegetation at three sites in the Outer Bluegrass accounted for these differences. Results of this study indicate that in instances of geologic variation within a physiographic region, hydraulic geometry relationships may require evaluation at the watershed scale. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/923 Tue, 20 Sep 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-09-20 3 3 Article 923 948 2073-4441 Bankfull Hydraulic Geometry Relationships for the Inner and Outer Bluegrass Regions of Kentucky 2011-09-20 doi: 10.3390/w3030923 Carmen Agouridis Ruth Brockman Stephen Workman Lindell Ormsbee Alex Fogle http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/906 In most countries, groundwater resource is a public good, and the entitlement of use rights by the public authority to final users differs according to a country-specific legislative framework. In Italy, groundwater extraction has been regulated through non-tradable private licenses. At present, the public authority needs to reform the current legislative framework, in order to comply with the Water Framework Directive, aimed at the enhancement of the efficiency of the resource use. This research analyzes the effects of reforming the current framework based on non-tradable use rights, by comparing two different liberalization scenarios: an intra-sector market, and a regional market. Although positive economic benefits are generally expected from the liberalization of use rights at aggregated level, we want to analyze whether effects of the legislative framework causes uneven changes on some farm groups. The empirical case study refers to the Fortore river basin (South of Italy), where groundwater covers about 50–80% of current needs, and informal (though illegal) water markets across neighbor farmers already exist. From the findings, there is no evidence that the exchange liberalization of groundwater use rights leads to gains in terms of the value added and the farmer’s revenue. In addition, in the case of an auction system regulated by the public authority, farmers whose water productivity is higher may be able to gain, while others may suffer some losses. In this case, resistances from farmers’ associations towards the legislative framework reform may arise. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/906 Mon, 19 Sep 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-09-19 3 3 Article 906 922 2073-4441 Economic Effects of Legislative Framework Changes in Groundwater Use Rights for Irrigation 2011-09-19 doi: 10.3390/w3030906 Giacomo Giannoccaro Maurizio Prosperi Giacomo Zanni http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/894 Grid devices with a terminal wall barrier have been widely used for dissipation of energy load of water piped from the outfall works of artificial reservoirs. The satisfactory results obtained have led to the commitment to usage of such devices, with good results even in the case of mudflows for which design criteria were suggested. In this study, the experimental results of an evaluation of pressure on a vertical terminal wall are shown with the evaluation of the overall hydrodynamic thrust. The correct evaluation of the dynamic impact of a mudflow front against a structure is an important task in its design procedure. The hydrodynamic drive calculated from the tests with corresponding theoretical model values derived has shown a good matching. According to the test and speed range detected, the maximum dissipation rate due to the wall was about 35% of the available total load. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/894 Tue, 13 Sep 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-09-13 3 3 Article 894 905 2073-4441 Mudflows: Assessment of Energy Dissipation on an Experimental Bottom Grid Device 2011-09-13 doi: 10.3390/w3030894 Francesco De Paola http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/882 A cross-sectional study was conducted at Sungai Lembing (SL) and Bukit Ubi (BU), Kuantan, Malaysia. The main objectives of this epidemiological study were to determine the aluminum concentration in drinking water, to compare with the government standard and to perform health risk assessment prediction among respondents from these two residential areas. A total of 100 respondents were selected from the study areas based on a few inclusive and exclusive criteria. Two duplicates of treated water samples were taken from each respondent's house using a 200 mL high-density polyethylene (HDPE) bottle and 0.4 mL (69%) pure concentrated nitric acid added as preservative. Aluminum concentrations were analyzed using Lambda 25 UV/V spectrophotometer. The result showed that the mean concentration of aluminum in drinking water from SL was 0.11 ± 0.0634 mg/L and 0.12 ± 0.0462 mg/L for BU. The mean value of Chronic Daily Intake (CDI) in SL (0.0035 ± 0.0028 mg/kg/day) was lower compared to BU (0.0037 ± 0.0021 mg/kg/day). The Hazard Index (HI) calculation showed all respondents had HI less than 1. In conclusion, there was unlikely potential for adverse health effects from aluminum intake in drinking water. However, it was necessary for some action to be taken in order to reduce aluminum levels found in drinking water in both locations. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/882 Mon, 12 Sep 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-09-12 3 3 Article 882 893 2073-4441 Risk Assessment of Aluminum in Drinking Water between Two Residential Areas 2011-09-12 doi: 10.3390/w3030882 Mohd A. Dzulfakar Mohd S. Shaharuddin Abdul A. Muhaimin Aizat I. Syazwan http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/869 Australia is the driest inhabited continent on earth and, more importantly, experiences the most variable rainfall of all the continents on our planet. The vast majority of Australians live in large cities on the coast. Because wastewater treatments plants were all located near the coast, it was thought that large scale recycling would be problematic given the cost of infrastructure and pumping required to establish recycled water schemes. This all changed when Australia experienced a decade of record low rainfall and water utilities were given aggressive targets to increase the volume of water recycled. This resulted in recycled water being accepted as a legitimate source of water for non-drinking purposes in a diversified portfolio of water sources to mitigate climate risk. To ensure community support for recycled water, Australia lead the world in developing national guidelines for the various uses of recycled water to ensure the protection of public health and the environment. Australia now provides a great case study of the developments in maximizing water recycling opportunities from policy, regulatory and technological perspectives. This paper explores the evolution in thinking and how approaches to wastewater reuse has changed over the past 40 years from an effluent disposal issue to one of recognizing wastewater as a legitimate and valuable resource. Despite recycled water being a popular choice and being broadly embraced, the concept of indirect potable reuse schemes have lacked community and political support across Australia to date. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/869 Fri, 09 Sep 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-09-09 3 3 Article 869 881 2073-4441 Water Recycling in Australia 2011-09-09 doi: 10.3390/w3030869 Nick Apostolidis Chris Hertle Ross Young http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/843 The work reviewed here was published between 2008 and 2010 and describes research that involved aerobic and anoxic biofilm treatment of water pollutants. Biofilm denitrification systems are covered when appropriate. References catalogued here are divided on the basis of fundamental research area or reactor types. Fundamental research into biofilms is presented in two sections, Biofilm Measurement and Characterization and Growth and Modeling. The reactor types covered are: trickling filters, rotating biological contactors, fluidized bed bioreactors, submerged bed biofilm reactors, biological granular activated carbon, membrane bioreactors, and immobilized cell reactors. Innovative reactors, not easily classified, are then presented, followed by a section on biofilms on sand, soil and sediment. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/843 Fri, 09 Sep 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-09-09 3 3 Review 843 868 2073-4441 Biofilm Fixed Film Systems 2011-09-09 doi: 10.3390/w3030843 Harvey Gullicks Hasibul Hasan Dipesh Das Charles Moretti Yung-Tse Hung http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/819 The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model has been used worldwide for many hydrologic and Non-Point Source (NPS) Pollution analyses on a watershed scale. However, it has many limitations in simulating the Vegetative Filter Strip (VFS) because it considers only ‘filter strip width’ when the model estimates sediment trapping efficiency and does not consider the routing of sediment with overland flow which is expected to maximize the sediment trapping efficiency from upper agricultural subwatersheds to lower spatially-explicit filter strips. Therefore, the SWAT overland flow option between landuse-subwatersheds with sediment routing capability was enhanced by modifying the SWAT watershed configuration and SWAT engine based on the numerical model VFSMOD applied to South-Korean conditions. The enhanced SWAT can simulate the VFS sediment trapping efficiency for South-Korean conditions in a manner similar to the desktop VFSMOD-w system. Due to this enhancement, SWAT is applicable to simulate the effects of overland flow from upper subwatersheds to reflect increased runoff volume at the lower subwatershed, which occurs in the field if no diversion channel is installed. In this study, the enhanced SWAT model was applied to small watersheds located at Jaun-ri in South-Korea to simulate a diversion channel and spatially-explicit VFS. Sediment can be reduced by 31%, 65%, and 68%, with a diversion channel, the VFS, and the VFS with diversion channel, respectively. The enhanced SWAT should be used in estimating site-specific effects on sediment reduction with diversion channels and VFS, instead of the currently available SWAT, which does not simulate sediment routing in overland flow and does not consider other sensitive factors affecting sediment reduction with VFS. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/819 Fri, 26 Aug 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-08-26 3 3 Article 819 842 2073-4441 Hydrologic Response Unit Routing in SWAT to Simulate Effects of Vegetated Filter Strip for South-Korean Conditions Based on VFSMOD 2011-08-26 doi: 10.3390/w3030819 Youn Shik Park Jeong Hee Park Won Seok Jang Ji Chul Ryu Hyunwoo Kang Joongdae Choi Kyoung Jae Lim http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/806 A review of the literature published in 2008, 2009 and 2010 relating to activated sludge treatment of wastewater is presented. The review considers information on the topics of modeling and kinetics; process microbiology; nitrogen and phosphorus removal; treatment and effects of xenobiotics; oxygen transfer; and solids separation. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/806 Tue, 16 Aug 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-08-16 3 3 Review 806 818 2073-4441 Activated Sludge and Other Aerobic Suspended Culture Processes 2011-08-16 doi: 10.3390/w3030806 Charles J. Moretti Dipesh Das Brian T. Kistner Harvey Gullicks Yung-Tse Hung http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/787 The main premise of the current effort is that the use of a drought index, such as Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), may lead to a more appropriate understanding of drought duration, magnitude and spatial extent in semi-arid areas like Greece. The importance of the Index may be marked in its simplicity and its ability to identify the beginning and end of a drought event. Thus, it may point towards drought contingency planning and through it to drought alert mechanisms. In this context, Greece, as it very often faces the hazardous impacts of droughts, presents an almost ideal case for the SPI application. The present approach examines the SPI drought index application for all of Greece and it is evaluated accordingly by historical precipitation data. Different time series of data from 46 precipitation stations, covering the period 1947–2004, and for time scales of 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 months, were used. The computation of the index was achieved by the appropriate usage of a pertinent software tool. Then, spatial representation of the SPI values was carried out with geo-statistical methods using the SURFER 9 software package. The results underline the potential that the SPI usage exhibits in a drought alert and forecasting effort as part of a drought contingency planning posture. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/787 Tue, 16 Aug 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-08-16 3 3 Article 787 805 2073-4441 Application of the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) in Greece 2011-08-16 doi: 10.3390/w3030787 Christos A. Karavitis Stavros Alexandris Demetrios E. Tsesmelis George Athanasopoulos http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/764 There is an increasing need to screen water in surface water collection systems to remove floating debris and small aquatic organisms to protect receiving water bodies. Recently, the Albuquerque Metropolitan Arroyo Flood Control Authority (AMAFCA, New Mexico, USA) has actively introduced structural debris removal from storm-water facilities as a best management practice. In the South Diversion Channel Project, AMAFCA’s objective is to divert the flow at the upstream end of the existing concrete structure and remove debris from this flow using Coanda-effect screens before allowing it to re-enter the channel. Design limitations, such as access to the debris removal site, existing components of the concrete structure, topography of the site, and need for flow-regulating structures complicate the design. This paper shows how numerical modeling tools (Delft3D-FLOW model) and physical modeling can be used in conjunction to observe flow patterns in a diversion structure and around Coanda-effect screens, estimate design parameters and thereby provide design recommendations. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/764 Mon, 04 Jul 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-07-04 3 3 Article 764 786 2073-4441 Coupling Numerical and Physical Modeling for Analysis of Flow in a Diversion Structure with Coanda-effect Screens 2011-07-04 doi: 10.3390/w3030764 Seyed Mahmood Hosseini Julie Coonrod http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/737 This paper defends the idea that a participatory approach is a suitable method for basin planning integrating both water and land aspects. Assertions made are based on scientific literature review and corroborated by field experience and research carried out in the Limpopo River basin, a transboundary river located in southern Africa which is affected by periodical floods. The paper explains how a basin strategic plan can be drafted and disaster risk reduction strategies derived by combining different types of activities using a bottom-up approach, despite an institutional context which operates through traditional top-down mechanisms. In particular, the “Living with Floods” experience in the lower Limpopo River, in Mozambique, is described as a concrete example of a disaster adaptation measure resulting from a participatory planning exercise. In conclusion, the adopted method and obtained results are discussed and recommendations are formulated for potential replication in similar contexts of the developing world. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/737 Wed, 29 Jun 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-06-29 3 3 Article 737 763 2073-4441 Participatory Approach for Integrated Basin Planning with Focus on Disaster Risk Reduction: The Case of the Limpopo River 2011-06-29 doi: 10.3390/w3030737 Mathias Spaliviero Morgan De Dapper Chris M.Mannaerts Antonio Yachan http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/718 The Jordan River basin is subject to extreme and increasing water scarcity. Management of transboundary water resources in the basin is closely intertwined with political conflicts in the region. We have jointly developed with stakeholders and experts from the riparian countries, a new dynamic consensus database and—supported by hydro-climatological model simulations and participatory scenario exercises in the GLOWA (Global Change and the Hydrological Cycle) Jordan River project—a basin-wide Water Evaluation and Planning (WEAP) tool, which will allow testing of various unilateral and multilateral adaptation options under climate and socio-economic change. We present its validation and initial (climate and socio-economic) scenario analyses with this budget and allocation tool, and invite further adaptation and application of the tool for specific Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) problems. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/3/718 Mon, 27 Jun 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-06-27 3 3 Article 718 736 2073-4441 A Water Resources Planning Tool for the Jordan River Basin 2011-06-27 doi: 10.3390/w3030718 Holger Hoff Christopher Bonzi Brian Joyce Katja Tielbörger http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/702 Sludge produced by municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) amounts to only a few percent by volume of the processed wastewater, but its handling accounts for up to 50% of total operating costs. Moreover, the need to achieve a sustainable sludge management strategy has become of great concern. It follows that as conventional and more traditional options, such as land spreading for agricultural purposes, are progressively restricted, and often legally banned, the development of innovative systems to maximize the recovery of useful materials and/or energy is required. A change toward more sustainable procedures can be promoted through an integrated approach, including the assessment of management routes capable of maximizing the recycle/recovery benefits, through low energy impact systems, and the development of operational systems appropriate to local circumstances. Based on the above considerations, an integrated system is proposed in this paper. It includes Anaerobic digestion, Dewatering/Drying, and Pyrolysis/Gasification processes which are efficiently coupled for the recovery of products for material reuse and/or energy purposes. Such an integrated system should also allow the recovery of one or more materials, depending on the combination of processes which best fit specific local situations. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/702 Wed, 22 Jun 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-06-22 3 2 Article 702 717 2073-4441 Sustainable and Innovative Solutions for Sewage Sludge Management 2011-06-22 doi: 10.3390/w3020702 Ludovico Spinosa Azize Ayol Jean-Christophe Baudez Roberto Canziani Pavel Jenicek Angelique Leonard Wim Rulkens Guoren Xu Lex Van Dijk http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/682 To meet European Water Framework Directive requirements, data are needed on faecal indicator organism (FIO) concentrations in rivers to enable the more heavily polluted to be targeted for remedial action. Due to the paucity of FIO data for the UK, especially under high-flow hydrograph event conditions, there is an urgent need by the policy community for generic models that can accurately predict FIO concentrations, thus informing integrated catchment management programmes. This paper reports the development of regression models to predict base- and high-flow faecal coliform (FC) and enterococci (EN) concentrations for 153 monitoring points across 14 UK catchments, using land cover, population (human and livestock density) and other variables that may affect FIO source strength, transport and die-off. Statistically significant models were developed for both FC and EN, with greater explained variance achieved in the high-flow models. Both land cover and, in particular, population variables are significant predictors of FIO concentrations, with r2 maxima for EN of 0.571 and 0.624, respectively. It is argued that the resulting models can be applied, with confidence, to other UK catchments, both to predict FIO concentrations in unmonitored watercourses and evaluate the likely impact of different land use/stocking level and human population change scenarios. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/682 Mon, 20 Jun 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-06-20 3 2 Article 682 701 2073-4441 Generic Modelling of Faecal Indicator Organism Concentrations in the UK 2011-06-20 doi: 10.3390/w3020682 John Crowther Danyel I. Hampson Ian J. Bateman David Kay Paulette E. Posen Carl M. Stapleton Mark D. Wyer http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/667 The aim of this paper is to analyze two Finnish Joint Regional Authorities for Water Supply—namely the Raisio-Naantali Joint Municipal Authority for Water Supply (established in 1957) and the Tuusula Region Joint Municipal Authority for Water Supply (established in 1967)—for assessing the development of supra-municipal water governance. The above two cases make it possible to analyze and assess water policies in settings where the owners are groups of municipalities. The analysis is based on two separately conducted case studies. The study data consist of several types of materials: Annual reports, local government documents, etc. The conducted interviews were semi-structured with some themes defined beforehand. The studies describe two authorities in the context of historical development and as a part of local development. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/667 Wed, 15 Jun 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-06-15 3 2 Article 667 681 2073-4441 Managing Water Supply through Joint Regional Municipal Authorities in Finland: Two Comparative Cases 2011-06-15 doi: 10.3390/w3020667 Marko Stenroos Tapio S. Katko http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/649 This paper provides data from two years of monitoring of the chemical quality of rivers and streams in North West England from the clean headwaters to polluted rivers just above the tidal reach and covers 26 sites including the Ribble, Wyre and the tributary rivers of the Calder and Douglas. Across the basins that include areas of rural, urban and industrial typologies, data is presented for three of the priority substances in the Water Framework Directive i.e., nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb). Average concentrations are low and well below the Environmental Quality Standards values for all three of these substances. Cadmium and Pb appear in approximately equal proportions in the dissolved (0.45 µm) whilst Ni occurs predominantly in the dissolved form (92%). Regional inputs of these metals arise mostly from diffuse sources as the storm-flow concentrations are generally greater than at base-flow condition. Greater concentrations of Ni are transported at the headwaters and smaller tributary sites under storm flow condition than for the main stream of the Ribble. For Ni, amounts increase as the river proceeds from its headwaters down towards the Ribble and Wyre estuaries, whilst Cd and Pb show consistent values throughout the catchment. There is annual cycling of dissolved concentrations of Cd, Pb and Ni for the clean headwater streams that gives maxima during the latter half of the year when the river flow is greater. For the impacted sites the pattern is less distinct or absent. Our estimates suggest that the Ribble estuary receives 550 t y−1 of dissolved Ni, 16 t y−1 of dissolved Cd and 240 t y−1 of dissolved Pb. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/649 Tue, 14 Jun 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-06-14 3 2 Article 649 666 2073-4441 Chemical Quality Status of Rivers for the Water Framework Directive: A Case Study of Toxic Metals in North West England 2011-06-14 doi: 10.3390/w3020650 Phil Rowland Colin Neal Darren Sleep Colin Vincent Paul Scholefield http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/629 A review of the literature published from 2008 to 2010 on topics related to chemicals and allied products is presented. The review considered several sections such as waste management, physicochemical treatment, aerobic treatment, anaerobic treatment, air emissions, soils and groundwater, and reuse. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/629 Tue, 14 Jun 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-06-14 3 2 Review 629 648 2073-4441 Chemicals and Allied Products Waste Treatment 2011-06-14 doi: 10.3390/w3020629 Yung-Tse Hung Erick Butler Ruth Yu-Li Yeh http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/618 Water, being a primary element in the diet and a necessary resource for the agriculture, can be considered a basic need for humans. In addition, also industrial practices need a growing amount of water. Since human population is continuously growing at a rate that, in the last two centuries, approximates well the exponential, water demand is increasing. However, the water resources on the Earth are finite. For this reason, even disregarding the potential threats due to the climate change, this situation appears as one of the biggest challenges of the current era. Actually, several small-scale regions already face water sustainability problems, and the scarcity of water resources is expected to spread to wider areas in the near future, if the actual trends of development and population growth do not change. The situation is exacerbated as the climate is already changing, due to the anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and its rate is expected to increase by the end of this century. The effects of these changes will increase the natural variability of the climate, exacerbating the extreme climatic phenomena (drought and flood events) and increasing the difficulty of managing water resources, especially in the most vulnerable regions. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/618 Fri, 10 Jun 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-06-10 3 2 Editorial 618 628 2073-4441 Managing Water in a Changing World 2011-06-10 doi: 10.3390/w3020618 Claudio Cassardo J. Anthony A. Jones http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/604 This paper describes the hydrological assessment of an agricultural watershed in the Midwestern United States through the use of a watershed scale hydrologic model. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was applied to the Maquoketa River watershed, located in northeast Iowa, draining an agriculture intensive area of about 5,000 km2. The inputs to the model were obtained from the Environmental Protection Agency’s geographic information/database system called Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS). Meteorological input, including precipitation and temperature from six weather stations located in and around the watershed, and measured streamflow data at the watershed outlet, were used in the simulation. A sensitivity analysis was performed using an influence coefficient method to evaluate surface runoff and baseflow variations in response to changes in model input hydrologic parameters. The curve number, evaporation compensation factor, and soil available water capacity were found to be the most sensitive parameters among eight selected parameters. Model calibration, facilitated by the sensitivity analysis, was performed for the period 1988 through 1993, and validation was performed for 1982 through 1987. The model was found to explain at least 86% and 69% of the variability in the measured streamflow data for calibration and validation periods, respectively. This initial hydrologic assessment will facilitate future modeling applications using SWAT to the Maquoketa River watershed for various watershed analyses, including watershed assessment for water quality management, such as total maximum daily loads, impacts of land use and climate change, and impacts of alternate management practices. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/604 Fri, 03 Jun 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-06-03 3 2 Article 604 617 2073-4441 Evaluating Hydrologic Response of an Agricultural Watershed for Watershed Analysis 2011-06-03 doi: 10.3390/w3020604 Manoj Kumar Jha http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/590 Control of non-point source (NPS) water pollution remains elusive in the United States (US). Many US water-bodies which have been primarily impacted by NPS pollution have not achieved water quality goals set by Clean Water Act. Technological advances have been made since 1972, yet many water resources fail to meet water quality standards. Common Pool Resources Theory is considered to understand the human dimension of NPS pollution by exploring anthropogenic activities superimposed upon dynamic ecosystems. In the final analysis, priority management zones (PMZs) for best management practice (BMP) implementation must have buy-in from land managers. TWAIM is an iterative systems thinking approach to planning, collecting landscape and land use information and communicating systems understanding to stakeholders. Hydrologic pathways that link the physical, chemical and biological characteristics influence processes occurring in a watershed which drive stream health and ecological function. With better systems understanding and application by technical specialists, there is potential for improved stakeholder interaction and dialogue which could then enable better land use decisions. Issues of pollutant origin, transport, storage and hydraulic residence must be defined and communicated effectively to land managers within a watershed context to observe trends in water quality change. The TWAIM concept provides a logical framework for locally-led assessment and a means to communicate ecohydrologic systems understanding over time to the key land managers such that PMZs can be defined for BMP implementation. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/590 Fri, 03 Jun 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-06-03 3 2 Article 590 603 2073-4441 Tailored Watershed Assessment and Integrated Management (TWAIM): A Systems Thinking Approach 2011-06-03 doi: 10.3390/w3020590 Joe Magner http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/576 Changes experienced in temperature, precipitation, demography and land coverage are the main themes studied in northwestern Patagonia, Argentina, which includes part of Neuquén, Río Negro and Chubut provinces. The precipitation shows important interannual variability and decreases during the warm semester. The mean minimum temperature in January in Neuquén city increased with statistical significance. Forests and steppe are the more important ecosystems of the area and the native forests of Nothofagus sp. are located mainly in protected areas like National or Provincial Parks. Twenty-eight percent of the Andean—patagonic forests are in the Río Negro province, while Neuquén province has 9% and Chubut province has 26%. The censuses of 1991 and 2001 showed that Los Lagos, Lacar, Picún Leufú and Cushamen are the counties with increasing population. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/576 Fri, 13 May 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-05-13 3 2 Article 576 589 2073-4441 Present Characteristics of Northwestern Patagonia (Argentina) 2011-05-13 doi: 10.3390/w3020576 Olga E. Scarpati Maria I. Botana Alberto D. Capriolo Veronica Pohl Schnake Yamile Puga Edgardo Salaverry http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/566 Hydrologic science has largely built its understanding of the hydrologic cycle using contemporary data sources (i.e., last 100 years). However, as we try to meet water demand over the next 100 years at scales from local to global, we need to expand our scope and embrace other data that address human activities and the alteration of hydrologic systems. For example, the accumulation of human impacts on water systems requires exploration of incompletely documented eras. When examining these historical periods, basic questions relevant to modern systems arise: (1) How is better information incorporated into water management strategies? (2) Does any point in the past (e.g., colonial/pre-European conditions in North America) provide a suitable restoration target? and (3) How can understanding legacies improve our ability to plan for future conditions? Beginning to answer these questions indicates the vital need to incorporate disparate data and less accepted methods to meet looming water management challenges. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/566 Thu, 12 May 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-05-12 3 2 Communication 566 575 2073-4441 Historical Legacies, Information and Contemporary Water Science and Management 2011-05-12 doi: 10.3390/w3020566 Daniel J. Bain Jennifer A. S. Arrigo Mark B. Green Brian A. Pellerin Charles J. Vörösmarty http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/551 Radioactive wastes are generated during nuclear fuel cycle operation, production and application of radioisotope in medicine, industry, research, and agriculture, and as a byproduct of natural resource exploitation, which includes mining and processing of ores, combustion of fossil fuels, or production of natural gas and oil. To ensure the protection of human health and the environment from the hazard of these wastes, a planned integrated radioactive waste management practice should be applied. This work is directed to review recent published researches that are concerned with testing and application of different treatment options as a part of the integrated radioactive waste management practice. The main aim from this work is to highlight the scientific community interest in important problems that affect different treatment processes. This review is divided into the following sections: advances in conventional treatment of aqueous radioactive wastes, advances in conventional treatment of organic liquid wastes, and emerged technological options. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/551 Thu, 12 May 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-05-12 3 2 Review 551 565 2073-4441 Liquid Radioactive Wastes Treatment: A Review 2011-05-12 doi: 10.3390/w3020551 R. O. Abdel Rahman H. A. Ibrahium Yung-Tse Hung http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/526 Based on predicted changes in the magnitude and distribution of global precipitation, temperature and river flow under the A1B and A2 scenarios of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (IPCC SRES), this study assesses the potential impacts of climate change and CO2 fertilization on global agriculture, and its interactions with trade liberalization, as proposed for the Doha Development Round. The analysis uses the new version of the GTAP-W model, which distinguishes between rainfed and irrigated agriculture and implements water as an explicit factor of production for irrigated agriculture. Significant reductions in agricultural tariffs lead to modest changes in regional water use. Patterns are non-linear. On the regional level, water use may go up for partial liberalization, and down for more complete liberalization. This is because different crops respond differently to tariff reductions, and because trade and competition matter too. Moreover, trade liberalization tends to reduce water use in water scarce regions, and increase water use in water abundant regions, even though water markets do not exist in most countries. Considering impacts of climate change, the results show that global food production, welfare and GDP fall over time while food prices increase. Larger changes are observed under the SRES A2 scenario for the medium term (2020) and under the SRES A1B scenario for the long term (2050). Combining scenarios of future climate change with trade liberalization, countries are affected differently. However, the overall effect on welfare does not change much. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/526 Fri, 06 May 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-05-06 3 2 Article 526 550 2073-4441 Trade Liberalization and Climate Change: A Computable General Equilibrium Analysis of the Impacts on Global Agriculture 2011-05-06 doi: 10.3390/w3020526 Alvaro Calzadilla Katrin Rehdanz Richard S.J. Tol http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/495 A review of the literature published in from 2008 to 2010 on topics related to electrochemical treatment within wastewater was presented. The review included several sections such as optimization, modeling, various wastewater treatment techniques, analytical and instrumentation, and comparison with other treatment methods. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/495 Wed, 06 Apr 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-04-06 3 2 Review 495 525 2073-4441 Electrocoagulation in Wastewater Treatment 2011-04-06 doi: 10.3390/w3020495 Erick Butler Yung-Tse Hung Ruth Yu-Li Yeh Mohammed Suleiman Al Ahmad http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/479 The critical importance of water is undeniable. It is particularly vital in semitropical regions with noticeable wet and dry seasons, such as the southern Maya lowlands. Not enough rain results in decreasing water supply and quality, failed crops, and famine. Too much water results in flooding, destruction, poor water quality, and famine. We show not only how Classic Maya (ca. A.D. 250–950) society dealt with the annual seasonal extremes, but also how kings and farmers responded differently in the face of a series of droughts in the Terminal Classic period (ca. A.D. 800–950). Maya farmers are still around today; kings, however, disappeared over 1,000 years ago. There is a lesson here on how people and water managers responded to long-term climate change, something our own society faces at present. The basis for royal power rested in what kings provided their subjects materially—that is, water during annual drought via massive artificial reservoirs, and spiritually—that is, public ceremonies, games, festivals, feasts, and other integrative activities. In the face of rulers losing their powers due to drought, people left. Without their labor, support and services, the foundation of royal power crumbled; it was too inflexible and little suited to adapting to change. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/479 Fri, 01 Apr 2011 00:00:00 CEST Water 2011-04-01 3 2 Article 479 494 2073-4441 Climate Change and Classic Maya Water Management 2011-04-01 doi: 10.3390/w3020479 Lisa J. Lucero Joel D. Gunn Vernon L. Scarborough http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/445 California’s highly variable climate and growing water demands combine to pose both water-supply and flood-hazard challenges to resource managers. Recently important efforts to more fully integrate the management of floods and water resources have begun, with the aim of benefitting both sectors. California is shown here to experience unusually large variations in annual precipitation and streamflow totals relative to the rest of the US, variations which mostly reflect the unusually small average number of wet days per year needed to accumulate most of its annual precipitation totals (ranging from 5 to 15 days in California). Thus whether just a few large storms arrive or fail to arrive in California can be the difference between a banner year and a drought. Furthermore California receives some of the largest 3-day storm totals in the country, rivaling in this regard the hurricane belt of the southeastern US. California’s largest storms are generally fueled by landfalling atmospheric rivers (ARs). The fractions of precipitation and streamflow totals at stations across the US that are associated with ARs are documented here and, in California, contribute 20–50% of the state’s precipitation and streamflow. Prospects for long-lead forecasts of these fractions are presented. From a meteorological perspective, California’s water resources and floods are shown to derive from the same storms to an extent that makes integrated flood and water resources management all the more important. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/2/445 Thu, 24 Mar 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-03-24 3 2 Article 445 478 2073-4441 Atmospheric Rivers, Floods and the Water Resources of California 2011-03-24 doi: 10.3390/w3020445 Michael D. Dettinger Fred Martin Ralph Tapash Das Paul J. Neiman Daniel R. Cayan http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/424 The most widely used technique for assessing the propensity of activated sludge to suffer from biological foaming is to measure foam potential. This involves measuring the amount of foam produced from sludge under conditions of controlled aeration. Two approaches have been adopted: (1) Air is passed through specially designed columns from fine porous diffusers at a fixed rate to form uniform sized bubbles or (2) employing Alka-Seltzer™ tablets which effervesce when added to the sludge. Both tests generate foam formation which can then be quantified. Foam assessment in activated sludge is reviewed. A sintered disc aeration column was compared with the Alka-Seltzer™ test method and both methods examined under a range of different environmental conditions. Foam potential measured by the sintered disc method displayed better repeatability compared to the Alka-Seltzer test. The use of a wire cage placed over the tablets greatly improved the precision of the Alka-Seltzer test. A positive linear correlation was also found between foam potential and temperature (4–20 °C). Sludge solids concentration was also shown to influence foaming potential making comparisons between reactors problematic. Recommendations on how to improve the repeatability of foam potential measurements are given. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/424 Fri, 18 Mar 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-03-18 3 1 Article 424 444 2073-4441 Evaluating the Measurement of Activated Sludge Foam Potential 2011-03-18 doi: 10.3390/w3010424 Martin Fryer Eoghan O’Flaherty Nicholas F. Gray http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/391 This is the final part of a paper series on the ability of peat to filter uranium (U) from mining-polluted water. The focus is on the characterization and site-specific quantification of the chemical component of the filter model introduced in Part II. Based on U levels in different sediment-water systems of the study area that were analyzed in this paper, peat generally displays the highest geochemical U enrichment even though absolute U levels are relatively low. Results of batch experiments suggest that peat removes U from local mine waters exceptionally well, reaching a removal efficiency of close to 100%. However, almost all of the initially sorbed U is released again on subsequent contact with clean dolomitic water. A synoptic summary of the findings presented in Parts I to IV concludes the paper series. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/391 Tue, 15 Mar 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-03-15 3 1 Article 391 423 2073-4441 Peatlands as Filters for Polluted Mine Water?—A Case Study from an Uranium-Contaminated Karst System in South Africa—Part IV: Quantifying the Chemical Filter Component 2011-03-15 doi: 10.3390/w3010391 Frank Winde http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/356 As Part III of a four-part series on the filter function of peat for uranium (U), this paper focuses on the hydraulic component of a conceptual filter model introduced in Part II. This includes the quantification of water flow through the wetland as a whole, which was largely unknown and found to be significantly higher that anticipated. Apart from subaquatic artesian springs associated with the underlying karst aquifer the higher flow volumes were also caused by plumes of polluted groundwater moving laterally into the wetland. Real-time, quasi-continuous in situ measurements of porewater in peat and non-peat sediments indicate that rising stream levels (e.g., during flood conditions) lead to the infiltration of stream water into adjacent peat deposits and thus allow for a certain proportion of flood water to be filtered. However, changes in porewater quality triggered by spring rains may promote the remobilization of possibly sorbed U. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/356 Tue, 15 Mar 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-03-15 3 1 Article 356 390 2073-4441 Peatlands as Filters for Polluted Mine Water?—A Case Study from an Uranium-Contaminated Karst System in South Africa—Part III: Quantifying the Hydraulic Filter Component 2011-03-15 doi: 10.3390/w3010356 Frank Winde http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/323 As the second part of a series of four, this paper reviews a number of case studies of natural uranium attenuation in peat, as well as underlying chemical mechanisms reported in literature. Based on this review, a generic, conceptual, model for peat to act as filter for dissolved uranium (U) is developed for guiding subsequent field investigations. The model consists of a chemical and an hydraulic component which is derived largely from data reported in literature as well as from limited field observations. For the chemical model component 10 different processes, each controlled by factors relating to water chemistry, have been identified to govern the attenuation of U in peat via a net balance of immobilization and remobilization. For the hydraulic aspect of the filter model, five different principal modes of U polluted water coming in contact with peat are discussed, focusing on the associated peat-water contact time as a crucial parameter controlling chemical U attenuation. Moreover, links between the two model components are discussed and, based on the integrated conceptual model, possible effects of natural and anthropogenic events on U attenuation in peatlands are outlined. Guided by the model, various site-specific field and laboratory investigations are finally designed to verify how far the identified generic factors and processes are indeed applicable to the Gerhard Minnebron Peatland. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/323 Tue, 15 Mar 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-03-15 3 1 Article 323 355 2073-4441 Peatlands as Filters for Polluted Mine Water?—A Case Study from an Uranium-Contaminated Karst System in South Africa—Part II: Examples from Literature and a Conceptual Filter Model 2011-03-15 doi: 10.3390/w3010323 Frank Winde http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/291 Located downstream of goldfields of the Witwatersrand basin, the Gerhard Minnebron (GMB) Eye—as major water source for downstream community of some 300,000 people—may be impacted on by mining-related water pollution especially with uranium (U). Containing up to 5 m-thick deposits of peat that is frequently reported to act as a filter for U and other heavy metals, this paper is the first part of a series that aims to quantify the ability of the GMB peatland to act as buffer against current and future U pollution. In a first step, this paper outlines the geohydrological conditions and discusses how deep–level gold mining impacted on the dolomitic aquifers. Subsequently, the potential influx of U into the wetland is estimated and associated sources and pathways analyzed. Finally, a model is proposed explaining the significant differences in degree and dynamics of U observed within a single groundwater compartment. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/291 Tue, 15 Mar 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-03-15 3 1 Article 291 322 2073-4441 Peatlands as Filters for Polluted Mine Water?—A Case Study from an Uranium-Contaminated Karst System in South Africa—Part I: Hydrogeological Setting and U Fluxes 2011-03-15 doi: 10.3390/w3010291 Frank Winde Ewald Erasmus http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/254 The aim of this study was to model water reservoir site selection for a real world application in the administrative district of Debub, Eritrea. This is a region were scarcity of water is a fundamental problem. Erratic rainfall, drought and unfavourable hydro-geological characteristics exacerbates the region’s water supply. Consequently, the population of Debub is facing severe water shortages and building reservoirs has been promoted as a possible solution to meet the future demand of water supply. This was the most powerful motivation to identify candidate sites for locating water reservoirs. A number of conflicting qualitative and quantitative criteria exist for evaluating alternative sites. Decisions regarding criteria are often accompanied by ambiguities and vagueness. This makes fuzzy logic a more natural approach to this kind of Multi-criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) problems. This paper proposes a combined two-stage MCDA methodology. The first stage involved utilizing the most simplistic type of data aggregation techniques known as Boolean Intersection or logical AND to identify areas restricted by environmental and hydrological constraints and therefore excluded from further study. The second stage involved integrating fuzzy logic with the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to identify optimum and back-up candidate water reservoir sites in the area designated for further study. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/254 Thu, 03 Mar 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-03-03 3 1 Article 254 290 2073-4441 Integrating Geographical Information Systems, Fuzzy Logic and Analytical Hierarchy Process in Modelling Optimum Sites for Locating Water Reservoirs. A Case Study of the Debub District in Eritrea 2011-03-03 doi: 10.3390/w3010254 Rodney G. Tsiko Tesfalem S. Haile http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/235 The radiolysis of water due to ionizing radiation results in the production of electrons, H· atoms, ·OH radicals, H3O+ ions and molecules (dihydrogen H2 and hydrogen peroxide H2O2). A brief history of the development of the understanding of water radiolysis is presented, with a focus on the H2 production. This H2 production is strongly modified at oxide surfaces. Different parameters accounting for this behavior are presented. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/235 Mon, 28 Feb 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-02-28 3 1 Review 235 253 2073-4441 Water Radiolysis: Influence of Oxide Surfaces on H2 Production under Ionizing Radiation 2011-02-28 doi: 10.3390/w3010235 Sophie Le Caër http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/217 The plurality of conservation and environmental viewpoints often challenge community leaders and government agency staff as they seek to engage citizens and build partnerships around watershed planning and management to solve complex water quality issues. The U.S. Midwest Heartland region (covering the states of Missouri, Kansa, Iowa, and Nebraska) is dominated by row crop production and animal agriculture, where an understanding of perceptions held by residents of different locations (urban, rural non-farm, and rural farm) towards water quality and the environment can provide a foundation for public deliberation and decision making. A stratified random sample mail survey of 1,042 Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska residents (54% response rate) reveals many areas of agreement among farm, rural non-farm, and those who live in towns on the importance of water issues including the importance and use of water resources; beliefs about water quality and perceptions of impaired water quality causality; beliefs about protecting local waters; and environmental attitudes. With two ordinal logistic models, we also found that respondents with strong environmental attitudes have the least confidence in ground and surface water quality. The findings about differences and areas of agreement among the residents of different sectors can provide a communication bridge among divergent viewpoints and assist local leaders and agency staff as they seek to engage the public in discussions which lead to negotiating solutions to difficult water issues. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/217 Mon, 21 Feb 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-02-21 3 1 Article 217 234 2073-4441 U.S. Midwestern Residents Perceptions of Water Quality 2011-02-21 doi: 10.3390/w3010217 Zhihua Hu Lois Wright Morton http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/196 The Future Midwest Landscape (FML) project is part of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)’s new Ecosystem Services Research Program, undertaken to examine the variety of ways in which landscapes that include crop lands, conservation areas, wetlands, lakes, and streams affect human well-being. The goal of the FML project is to quantify current and future ecosystem services across the region and to examine changes expected to occur as a result of the growing demand for biofuels. This study is one of several pilots taking place under the umbrella of the FML research project. In this study, the USDA Annualized Agricultural Non-Point Source Pollution (AnnAGNPS) model was applied to the East Fork Kaskaskia River watershed (289.3 km2) located in the Kaskaskia River Basin within the Upper Mississippi River Basin in Illinois. The effect of different spatial resolutions on model performance was investigated by comparing the observed runoff with the AnnAGNPS simulated results. Alternative future scenarios such as meeting future biofuel target were also simulated and analyzed. All delineations of the study area (coarser to finer) produced satisfactory results in simulating monthly and annual runoff. However, the size of the delineation does impact the simulation results. Finer delineations better represented the actual landscape and captured small critical areas that would be homogenized in coarser delineation. Those small critical areas are important to target to achieve maximum environment benefit. Simulations of alternative future scenarios showed that as corn production increases to meet future biofuel needs, total nitrogen loss increases. For this watershed, total N loss would be more than doubled if converting all corn/soybean rotation (15,871.2 ha) to continuous corn comparing with the base year total N loss which is 11.2 kg/ha. Conservation practices are needed to reduce total nitrogen loss from the watershed. This study provides an important foundation for the larger FML region modeling effort by addressing challenging FML landscape modeling issues such as model selection, need for further model development, and spatial resolution. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/196 Thu, 17 Feb 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-02-17 3 1 Article 196 216 2073-4441 AnnAGNPS Model Application for Nitrogen Loading Assessment for the Future Midwest Landscape Study 2011-02-17 doi: 10.3390/w3010196 Yongping Yuan Megan H. Mehaffey Ricardo D. Lopez Ronald L. Bingner Randy Bruins Caroline Erickson Michael A. Jackson http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/177 In biosorption research, a fairly broad range of mathematical models are used to correlate discrete data points obtained from batch equilibrium, batch kinetic or fixed bed breakthrough experiments. Most of these models are inherently nonlinear in their parameters. Some of the models have enjoyed widespread use, largely because they can be linearized to allow the estimation of parameters by least-squares linear regression. Selecting a model for data correlation appears to be dictated by the ease with which it can be linearized and not by other more important criteria such as parameter accuracy or theoretical relevance. As a result, models that cannot be linearized have enjoyed far less recognition because it is necessary to use a search algorithm for parameter estimation. In this study a real-coded genetic algorithm is applied as the search method to estimate equilibrium isotherm and kinetic parameters for batch biosorption as well as breakthrough parameters for fixed bed biosorption. The genetic algorithm is found to be a useful optimization tool, capable of accurately finding optimal parameter estimates. Its performance is compared with that of nonlinear and linear regression methods. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/177 Wed, 16 Feb 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-02-16 3 1 Article 177 195 2073-4441 Biosorption Parameter Estimation with Genetic Algorithm 2011-02-16 doi: 10.3390/w3010177 Khim Hoong Chu Xiao Feng Eui Yong Kim Yung-Tse Hung http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/157 Dye wastes represent one of the most problematic groups of pollutants because they can be easily identified by the human eye and are not easily biodegradable. This literature review paper highlights and provides an overview of dye waste treatments performed over the three years period from 2008–2010. Noteworthy processes for the treatment of dye waste include biological treatment, catalytic oxidation, filtration, sorption process and combination treatments. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/157 Wed, 16 Feb 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-02-16 3 1 Review 157 176 2073-4441 Dye Waste Treatment 2011-02-16 doi: 10.3390/w3010157 Siew-Teng Ong Pei-Sin Keng Weng-Nam Lee Sie-Tiong Ha Yung-Tse Hung http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/146 A horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland was investigated after eight years of residential wastewater discharge (150 person equivalents). Twenty core samples distributed over the entire wetland were taken from the soil matrix. The distribution pattern of phosphorus (P) accumulation in the substrate of the wetland was determined using kriging technique and P sorption was related to the content of aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe). The correlations found between Al, Ca and Fe content and P accumulation in the bed substrate were weak: R2 = 0.09, R2 = 0.21 and R2 = 0.28, respectively. Great heterogeneity was observed in the distribution of Ca, P and organic matter in the superficial and deeper layers of the bed. Hydraulic problems associated with wastewater discharge and conductivity of the bed substrate were suggested to have negative effects on the wetland performance. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/146 Thu, 27 Jan 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-01-27 3 1 Article 146 156 2073-4441 Phosphorus Accumulation Pattern in a Subsurface Constructed Wetland Treating Residential Wastewater 2011-01-27 doi: 10.3390/w3010146 Agnieszka Karczmarczyk Gunno Renman http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/132 Soil water surplus and deficit occur frequently in Buenos Aires province in Argentina. This paper analyses the soil water surplus in a sub-area, the Salado River basin, in the period 1968–2008. This basin is divided in seven drainage areas, delimitated according to the National Water Resources. The series of soil water surplus data were adjusted by means of the theoretical normal cubic-root probability distribution, and the mean areal soil water surplus value of 300 mm was considered as a threshold above which floods can cause severe damage. An increase in the frequency of extreme events and in their tendency exists during the recent years, coherent with the increase of precipitation recorded in the region. The statistical significance of the results was assessed using the Mann Kendall and MAKESENS tests. The results showed a relevant temporal variability, but did not show significant tendencies. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/132 Tue, 18 Jan 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-01-18 3 1 Article 132 145 2073-4441 Soil Water Surplus in Salado River Basin and Its Variability during the Last Forty Years (Buenos Aires Province, Argentina) 2011-01-18 doi: 10.3390/w3010132 Olga Eugenia Scarpati Liliana Beatriz Spescha Juan Alberto Forte Lay Alberto Daniel Capriolo http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/113 Mapping irrigated areas of a river basin is important in terms of assessing water use and food security. This paper describes an innovative remote sensing based vegetation phenological approach to map irrigated areas and then the differentiates the ground water irrigated areas from the surface water irrigated areas in the Krishna river basin (26,575,200 hectares) in India using MODIS 250 meter every 8-day near continuous time-series data for 2000–2001. Temporal variations in the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) pattern obtained in irrigated classes enabled demarcation between: (a) irrigated surface water double crop, (b) irrigated surface water continuous crop, and (c) irrigated ground water mixed crops. The NDVI patterns were found to be more consistent in areas irrigated with ground water due to the continuity of water supply. Surface water availability, on the other hand, was dependent on canal water release that affected time of crop sowing and growth stages, which was in turn reflected in the NDVI pattern. Double cropped and light irrigation have relatively late onset of greenness, because they use canal water from reservoirs that drain large catchments and take weeks to fill. Minor irrigation and ground water irrigated areas have early onset of greenness because they drain smaller catchments where aquifers and reservoirs fill more quickly. Vegetation phonologies of 9 distinct classes consisting of Irrigated, rainfed, and other land use classes were also derived using MODIS 250 meter near continuous time-series data that were tested and verified using groundtruth data, Google Earth very high resolution (sub-meter to 4 meter) imagery, and state-level census data. Fuzzy classification accuracies for most classes were around 80% with class mixing mainly between various irrigated classes. The areas estimated from MODIS were highly correlated with census data (R-squared value of 0.86). http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/113 Thu, 13 Jan 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-01-13 3 1 Article 113 131 2073-4441 Mapping Irrigated Areas Using MODIS 250 Meter Time-Series Data: A Study on Krishna River Basin (India) 2011-01-13 doi: 10.3390/w3010113 Murali Krishna Gumma Prasad S. Thenkabail Andrew Nelson http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/79 Sixteen static diffusion reactors containing n-ZVM (Fe0, Cu0, Al0) establish a common equilibrium redox (Eh-pH) trajectory which is directly linked to the aquifer pore volume, volume of injected n-ZVM, throughflow rate within the aquifer and time. The effect of NaCl and Ca-montmorillonite on the trajectory is considered. The trajectory can be directly linked to TDS (EC) and to the equilibrium removal of contaminants. In each example, the progressive oscillation between reduction and oxidation reactions (including Fenton reactions) creates the catalytic nuclei (and redox environment) required for the decomposition of organic pollutants and their reconstruction as simple alkanes and oxygenates. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/79 Tue, 11 Jan 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-01-11 3 1 Article 79 112 2073-4441 Modification of Aquifer Pore-Water by Static Diffusion Using Nano-Zero-Valent Metals 2011-01-11 doi: 10.3390/w3010079 David D. J. Antia http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/64 This study investigates the potential of 36Cl in tracing young groundwater with residence times of up to ~50 years. Groundwater samples were obtained from 16 irrigation wells in paddy fields located within an upland–lowland system in the Yoro River basin, Central Japan. The 36Cl/Cl ratios were in the range of 17 to 362 × 10−15. Among the samples with higher Cl− concentrations (>10 mg/L), two samples showed high nitrate concentrations as well (>30 mg/L). Except for these samples, the distribution of 36Cl in groundwater was essentially consistent with previous tritium concentration data measured in 1982 and 1994, considering the time that has elapsed since these earlier measurements were performed. 36Cl/Cl values were less than 30 × 10−15 in lowland areas, with higher values in and around upland areas. The results indicate longer residence times in the regional groundwater flow system (>50 years) than those estimated in previous studies, especially in the area west of the Yoro River. The results demonstrate the ability of 36Cl to trace young groundwater flow, particularly because high values of bomb-derived 36Cl/Cl are easily discriminated from pre-bomb water with low 36Cl/Cl values. Because of its very long half-life (3.01 × 105 years), 36Cl remains even after tritium is no longer available. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/64 Thu, 06 Jan 2011 00:00:00 CET Water 2011-01-06 3 1 Article 64 78 2073-4441 Distribution of 36Cl in the Yoro River Basin, Central Japan, and Its Relation to the Residence Time of the Regional Groundwater Flow System 2011-01-06 doi: 10.3390/w3010064 Yuki Tosaki Norio Tase Akihiko Kondoh Kimikazu Sasa Tsutomu Takahashi Yasuo Nagashima http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/47 The Water Footprint, as an indicator of water consumption has become increasingly popular for analyzing environmental issues associated with the use of water resources in the global supply chain of consumer goods. This is particularly relevant for countries like the UK, which increasingly rely on products produced elsewhere in the world and thus impose pressures on foreign water resources. Existing studies calculating water footprints are mostly based on process analysis, and results are mainly available at the national level. The current paper assesses the domestic and foreign water requirements for UK final consumption by applying an environmentally extended multi-regional input-output model in combination with geo-demographic consumer segmentation data. This approach allows us to calculate water footprints (both direct and indirect) for different products as well as different geographies within the UK. We distinguished between production and consumption footprints where the former is the total water consumed from the UK domestic water resources by the production activities in the UK and the latter is the total water consumed from both domestic and global water resources to satisfy the UK domestic final consumption. The results show that the production water footprint is 439 m3/cap/year, 85% of which is for the final consumption in the UK itself. The average consumption water footprint of the UK is more than three times bigger than the UK production water footprint in 2006. About half of the UK consumption water footprints were associated with imports from Non-OECD countries (many of which are water-scarce), while around 19% were from EU-OECD countries, and only 3% from Non-EU-OECD countries. We find that the water footprint differs considerably across sub-national geographies in the UK, and the differences are as big as 273 m3/cap/year for the internal water footprint and 802 m3/cap/year for the external water footprint. Our results suggest that this is mainly explained by differences in the average income level across the UK. We argue that the information provided by our model at different spatial scales can be very useful for informing integrated water supply and demand side management. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/47 Thu, 30 Dec 2010 00:00:00 CET Water 2010-12-30 3 1 Article 47 63 2073-4441 Spatially Explicit Analysis of Water Footprints in the UK 2010-12-30 doi: 10.3390/w3010047 Kuishuang Feng Klaus Hubacek Jan Minx Yim Ling Siu Ashok Chapagain Yang Yu Dabo Guan John Barrett http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/21 When water problems extend beyond the borders of local communities, the river basin is generally seen as the most appropriate unit for analysis, planning, and institutional arrangements. In this paper it is argued that addressing water problems at the river basin level is not always sufficient. Many of today’s seemingly local water issues carry a (sub)continental or even global dimension, which urges for a governance approach that comprises institutional arrangements at a level beyond that of the river basin. This paper examines a number of arguments for the thesis that good water governance requires a global approach complementary to the river basin approach. Subsequently, it identifies four major issues to be addressed at global scale: Efficiency, equity, sustainability and security of water supply in a globalised world. Finally, the paper raises the question of what kind of institutional arrangements could be developed to cope with the global dimension of water issues. A few possible directions are explored, ranging from an international protocol on full-cost water pricing and a water label for water-intensive products to the implementation of water footprint quotas and the water-neutral concept. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/21 Wed, 29 Dec 2010 00:00:00 CET Water 2010-12-29 3 1 Article 21 46 2073-4441 The Global Dimension of Water Governance: Why the River Basin Approach Is No Longer Sufficient and Why Cooperative Action at Global Level Is Needed 2010-12-29 doi: 10.3390/w3010021 Arjen Y. Hoekstra http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/1 In Nepal, arsenic (As) contamination is a major issue of current drinking water supply systems using groundwater and has recently been one of the major environmental health management issues especially in the plain region, i.e., in the Terai districts, where the population density is very high. The Terai inhabitants still use hand tube and dug wells (with hand held pumps that are bored at shallow to medium depth) for their daily water requirements, including drinking water. The National Sanitation Steering Committee (NSSC), with the help of many other organizations, has completed arsenic blanket test in 25 districts of Nepal by analysing 737,009 groundwater samples. Several organizations, including academic institutions, made an effort to determine the levels of arsenic concentrations in groundwater and their consequences in Nepal. The results of the analyses on 25,058 samples tested in 20 districts, published in the status report of arsenic in Nepal (2003), demonstrated that the 23% of the samples were containing 10–50 µg/L of As, and the 8% of the samples were containing more than 50 µg/L of As. Recent status of over 737,009 samples tested, the 7.9% and 2.3% were contaminated by 10–50 µg/L and >50 µg/L, respectively of As. The present paper examines the various techniques available for the reduction of arsenic concentrations in Nepal in combination with the main results achieved, the socio-economic status and the strategies. This paper aims to comprehensively compile all existing data sets and analyze them scientifically, by trying to suggest a common sustainable approach for identifying the As contamination in the nation, that can be easily adopted by local communities for developing a sustainable society. The paper aims also to find probable solutions to quantify and mitigate As problem without any external support. The outcome of this paper will ultimately help to identify various ways for: identify risk areas; develop awareness; adopt the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline; identify alternative safe water sources and assess their sustainability; give priorities to water supply and simple eco-friendly treatment techniques; investigate impacts of arsenic on health and agriculture; strengthen the capability of government, public, Non-governmental Organization (NGO) and research institutions. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/3/1/1 Wed, 29 Dec 2010 00:00:00 CET Water 2010-12-29 3 1 Review 1 20 2073-4441 Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater in Nepal—An Overview 2010-12-29 doi: 10.3390/w3010001 Jay Krishna Thakur Rinku Kumari Thakur AL Ramanathan Manish Kumar Sudhir Kumar Singh http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/916 The paper summarizes the preliminary results from the analysis of data collected during the 2008 and 2009 vegetative seasons in a northern Italy vineyard (Vitis vinifera L., Barbera variety) and the simulations carried out in the same period with the land surface model UTOPIA. The aim of the work is to study the influence of the meteorological factors on the plant conditions. We collected a set of standard and advanced meteorological, physiological and physical data and we investigated the performance of UTOPIA in describing the different components of the energy and hydrological processes (in particular the evapotranspiration), with a special focus on the vegetation and soil. The comparison between observed data and UTOPIA simulations showed satisfactory results for the soil variables (RRMSE ranging between 15% and 40%, and correlation coefficients of 0.9). Net radiation and sensible heat fluxes RRMSE (30% and 63% respectively) suggest that both the calibration of the vegetation parameters (including the influence of the grass among vine rows) and the availability of more specific measurements are very important. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/916 Mon, 13 Dec 2010 00:00:00 CET Water 2010-12-13 2 4 Article 916 937 2073-4441 Preliminary Results on the Evaluation of Factors Influencing Evapotranspiration Processes in Vineyards 2010-12-13 doi: 10.3390/w2040916 Caterina Francone Claudio Cassardo Federico Spanna Laura Alemanno Davide Bertoni Renzo Richiardone Irene Vercellino http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/904 This study examines the suitability of natural silica sand as a low-cost adsorbent for the removal of ammoniacal nitrogen and heavy metals, particularly iron and zinc, from semi-aerobic stabilized landfill leachate. Leachate samples were collected from the Pulau Burung landfill site (PBLS) in Penang, Malaysia. The above-mentioned contaminants are highlighted in this study because of their unsafe concentrations at PBLS. The effects of shaking time, settling time, and silica sand dosage on the study parameter removal efficiencies were investigated to predict the performance of the process. The adsorptions of ammoniacal nitrogen, iron, and zinc were judiciously described by Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models. The optimum removal efficiencies of ammoniacal nitrogen, iron, and zinc obtained were 51%, 44.4%, and 39.2%, respectively, with a shaking time of 90 min, a settling time of 60 min, and with a dosage of 60 g (0.5 kg/L) of silica sand. Based on the coefficient of determination (R2) values obtained from Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models, ammoniacal nitrogen, iron, and zinc adsorption were better fitted to the Freundlich model. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/904 Mon, 06 Dec 2010 00:00:00 CET Water 2010-12-06 2 4 Article 904 915 2073-4441 The Effectiveness of Silica Sand in Semi-Aerobic Stabilized Landfill Leachate Treatment 2010-12-06 doi: 10.3390/w2040904 Ezlina Othman Mohd Suffian Yusoff Hamidi Abdul Aziz Mohd Nordin Adlan Mohammed J. K. Bashir Yung-Tse Hung http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/886 We tested intermittent aeration of the soil treatment area (STA) of onsite wastewater treatment systems (OWTS) for its ability to restore and maintain STA hydraulic flow and improve the water quality functions of conventional OWTS. Evaluation was conducted on hydraulically-failed conventional OWTS at three state-owned medical group homes in Washington County, RI, USA. Testing was conducted in two phases, with Phase I (before intermittent soil aeration (ISA)) comprising the first 6 months of the study, and Phase II (during ISA) the remaining 7 months. Intermittent soil aeration restored STA hydraulic function in all three systems despite a marked reduction in the STA total infiltrative surface. Soil pore water was collected from 30 and 90 cm below the STA during both phases and analyzed for standard wastewater parameters. Although the STA infiltrative surface was reduced—and the contaminant load per unit of area increased—after installation of the ISA system, no differences were observed between phases in concentration of total N, NO3, total P, or dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Apparent removal rates—which do not account for dilution or differences in infiltrative area—for total N, total P, and DOC remained the same or improved during Phase II relative to the pre-operation phase. Furthermore, intermittent soil aeration enhanced actual removal rates —which do account for dilution and differences in infiltrative area. The effects of ISA on actual removal of contaminants from STE increased with increasing hydraulic load—a counterintuitive phenomenon, but one that has been previously observed in laboratory studies. The results of our study suggest that intermittent soil aeration can restore and maintain hydraulic flow in the STA and enhance carbon and nutrient removal in conventional OWTS. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/886 Wed, 01 Dec 2010 00:00:00 CET Water 2010-12-01 2 4 Article 886 903 2073-4441 Improvement of Hydraulic and Water Quality Renovation Functions by Intermittent Aeration of Soil Treatment Areas in Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems 2010-12-01 doi: 10.3390/w2040886 José A. Amador David A. Potts George W. Loomis David V. Kalen Erika L. Patenaude Josef H. Görres http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/872 Following increasing interest in the use of UltraFiltration (UF) membrane processes as an alternative advanced disinfection technique, the performance of a UF pilot plant was investigated under two opposite operating conditions (“stressed operating condition” versus “conventional operating condition”). The results indicate that for both conditions, the reclaimed effluent complied with the Italian regulations for unrestricted wastewater reuse (i.e., Total Suspended Solids (TSS) < 10 mg/L; Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) < 100 mg/L and Escherichia coli < 10 CFU/100 mL). On the other hand, when compared with the Title 22 of the California Wastewater Reclamation Criteria, only the effluent produced under the “conventional operating condition” met the stipulated water quality standards (i.e., TSS and turbidity undetectable and total coliforms < 2.2 CFU/100 mL). It should be noted that, in spite of the nominal cut-off size, total coliforms breakthrough was indeed occasionally observed. A localized membrane pore micro-enlargement mechanism was hypothesized to explain the total coliforms propagation in the ultrafiltered effluent, as monitoring of the membrane permeability and transmembrane pressure highlighted that gel/cake formation had only a minor contribution to the overall membrane fouling mechanism with respect to pore plugging and pore narrowing mechanisms. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/872 Mon, 22 Nov 2010 00:00:00 CET Water 2010-11-22 2 4 Article 872 885 2073-4441 Ultrafiltration (UF) Pilot Plant for Municipal Wastewater Reuse in Agriculture: Impact of the Operation Mode on Process Performance 2010-11-22 doi: 10.3390/w2040872 Dario Falsanisi Lorenzo Liberti Michele Notarnicola http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/849 There has been a steady shift towards modeling and model-based approaches as primary methods of assessing watershed response to hydrologic inputs and land management, and of quantifying watershed-wide best management practice (BMP) effectiveness. Watershed models often require some degree of calibration and validation to achieve adequate watershed and therefore BMP representation. This is, however, only possible for gauged watersheds. There are many watersheds for which there are very little or no monitoring data available, thus the question as to whether it would be possible to extend and/or generalize model parameters obtained through calibration of gauged watersheds to ungauged watersheds within the same region. This study explored the possibility of developing regionalized model parameter sets for use in ungauged watersheds. The study evaluated two regionalization methods: global averaging, and regression-based parameters, on the SWAT model using data from priority watersheds in Arkansas. Resulting parameters were tested and model performance determined on three gauged watersheds. Nash-Sutcliffe efficiencies (NS) for stream flow obtained using regression-based parameters (0.53–0.83) compared well with corresponding values obtained through model calibration (0.45–0.90). Model performance obtained using global averaged parameter values was also generally acceptable (0.4 ≤ NS ≤ 0.75). Results from this study indicate that regionalized parameter sets for the SWAT model can be obtained and used for making satisfactory hydrologic response predictions in ungauged watersheds. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/849 Fri, 12 Nov 2010 00:00:00 CET Water 2010-11-12 2 4 Article 849 871 2073-4441 Regionalization of SWAT Model Parameters for Use in Ungauged Watersheds 2010-11-12 doi: 10.3390/w2040849 Margaret W. Gitau Indrajeet Chaubey http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/838 Piemonte region, in the north-western Italy, is characterized by complex orography and Mediterranean influence that often causes extreme rainfall event, during the warm season. Although the region is monitored by a dense gauge network (more than one gauge per 100 km2), the ground measurements are often inadequate to properly observe intense and highly variable precipitations. Polarimetric weather radars provide a unique way to monitor rainfall over wide areas, with the required spatial detail and temporal resolution. Nevertheless, most European weather radar networks are operating at C-band, which may seriously limit quantitative precipitation estimation in heavy rainfall due to relevant power signal attenuation. Phase measurements, unlike power measurements, are not affected by signal attenuation. For this reason, polarimetric radars, for which the differential phase shift measurements are available, provide an additional way in which to estimate precipitation, which is immune to signal attenuation. In this work differential phase based rainfall estimation techniques are applied to analyze two flash-floods: the first one occurred on the Ligurian Apennines on 16 August 2006 and the second occurred on 13 September 2008, causing rain accumulations above 270 mm in few hours. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/838 Tue, 09 Nov 2010 00:00:00 CET Water 2010-11-09 2 4 Article 838 848 2073-4441 Heavy Rainfall Monitoring by Polarimetric C-Band Weather Radars 2010-11-09 doi: 10.3390/w2040838 Roberto Cremonini Renzo Bechini http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/826 Research on Phosphorus (P) removal capacity by blast furnace slags (BFS) has been undertaken in Sweden for the last decade. Both laboratory experiments and field trials have been carried out. While laboratory investigations revealed that BFS has a high P-sorption capacity (95–100%), P removal in field trials was much lower, ranging from 40 to 53%. In addition, a number of problems have been observed in BFS field testing including clogging, sulfuric odor and environmental (regulatory) concerns about possible leaching of heavy metals from the slag. In spite of these problems, and questioning by the environmental regulatory authorities, research continues to provide evidence that BFS can be regarded as a suitable filter media, and attempts have also been undertaken in order to further improve the P-removal capacity of this adsorbing material. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/826 Thu, 28 Oct 2010 00:00:00 CEST Water 2010-10-28 2 4 Review 826 837 2073-4441 The Use of Blast Furnace Slag for Removal of Phosphorus from Wastewater in Sweden—A Review 2010-10-28 doi: 10.3390/w2040826 Lena Johansson Westholm http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/815 Several forms of supra-municipal cooperation between water and wastewater utilities have evolved in Finland since the 1950s: bilateral contract-based, municipal federations or authorities operating on a wholesale basis as well as supra-municipal companies. These may take care of community water supply or sewerage, or both. This paper explores and analyzes the most common form of cooperation: contracts for water and wastewater services between neighboring municipalities. The extent of contractual cooperation until 2006 was explored by an inquiry sent to bigger water and wastewater utilities (n = 233 replies; 88 %). Compared to a study performed in 1975, the number of bilateral contracts had tripled. The study also included interviews targeting nine selected cases. We examined also the centralization of wastewater treatment when small plants are closed down and wastewater is directed to larger plants. Centralization has led to the construction of transfer sewers; the paper also explores their evolution from 1995 to 2015. Contrary to common arguments, contractual cooperation proved rather easy to manage and should be seen as a serious option for other tighter forms of supra-municipal cooperation that are also increasing. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/815 Thu, 28 Oct 2010 00:00:00 CEST Water 2010-10-28 2 4 Article 815 825 2073-4441 Bilateral Collaboration in Municipal Water and Wastewater Services in Finland 2010-10-28 doi: 10.3390/w2040815 Vuokko O. Kurki Tapio S. Katko Pekka E. Pietilä http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/788 This paper presents an assessment of the cost of water scarcity in Cyprus, today and in the next 20 years, taking into account the effect of projected climate change in the region. It focuses on the residential sector, accounting also for tourism and industry. Using a simple demand function, total scarcity costs in Cyprus are computed for the period 2010–2030, and three scenarios of future water demand are presented. The central estimate shows that the present value of total costs due to water shortages will amount to 72 million Euros (at 2009 prices), and, if future water demand increases a little faster, these costs may reach 200 million Euros. Using forecasts of regional climate models, costs are found to be about 20% higher in a “climate change” scenario. Compared to the loss of consumer surplus due to water shortages, desalination is found to be a costly solution, even if environmental damage costs from the operation of desalination plants are not accounted for. Finally, dynamic constrained optimization is employed and shows that efficient residential water prices should include a scarcity price of about 40 Eurocents per cubic meter at  2009 prices; this would constitute a 30–100% increase in current prices faced by residential consumers. Reductions in rainfall due to climate change would raise this price by another 2-3 Eurocents. Such a pricing policy would provide a clear long-term signal to consumers and firms and could substantially contribute to a sustainable use of water resources in the island. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/788 Wed, 20 Oct 2010 00:00:00 CEST Water 2010-10-20 2 4 Article 788 814 2073-4441 Residential Water Scarcity in Cyprus: Impact of Climate Change and Policy Options 2010-10-20 doi: 10.3390/w2040788 Theodoros Zachariadis http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/773 Snow cover greatly influences the climate in the Alpine region and is one of the most relevant parameters for the climate change analysis. Nevertheless, snow precipitation variability is a relatively underexplored field of research because of the lack of long-term, continuous and homogeneous time series. After a historical research aiming to recover continuous records, three high quality time series of snow precipitation and snow depth recorded in the southwestern Italian Alps were analyzed. The comparison between the climatological indices over the 30 years reference period 1971–2000 and the decade 2000–2009 outlined a general decrease in the amount of snow precipitation, and a shift in the seasonal distribution of the snow precipitation in the most recent period. In the analysis of the last decade snow seasons characteristics, the attention was focused on the heavy snowfalls that occurred in Piedmont during the 2008–2009 snow season: MODerate resolution Imager Spectroradiometer (MODIS) snow cover products were used to evaluate snow cover extension at different times during the snow season, and the results were set in relation to the temperatures. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/773 Tue, 19 Oct 2010 00:00:00 CEST Water 2010-10-19 2 4 Article 773 787 2073-4441 Snow Precipitation and Snow Cover Climatic Variability for the Period 1971–2009 in the Southwestern Italian Alps: The 2008–2009 Snow Season Case Study 2010-10-19 doi: 10.3390/w2040773 Silvia Terzago Claudio Cassardo Roberto Cremonini Simona Fratianni http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/742 Surface water resources (the Vaal River and its tributaries) in the Vredefort Dome World Heritage Site (VDWHS), South Africa, have been over extended and future development will rely solely on groundwater. Hence, being at a critical point in the water balance, groundwater resources in the VDWHS require careful management and protection to ensure sustainability and equitable access. An assessment of the geohydrological character of the VDWHS was therefore done in order to develop a groundwater resource management plan. Five groundwater resource management units were delineated and resource measures for each management unit were developed based on physical and anthropogenic attributes. Due to the importance of groundwater in the VDWHS, it was determined that geohydrology should play a major role in the alignment of the environmental, spatial and statutory development frameworks, in order to ensure good governance. A geohydrological-based land use management guideline and spatial development framework was developed to optimize the integration between the water sector, the environmental sector and land use and spatial planning sector. It was concluded that a geohydrological assessment needs to form the basis of all future land use management and spatial planning activities in the VDWHS. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/742 Tue, 19 Oct 2010 00:00:00 CEST Water 2010-10-19 2 4 Article 742 772 2073-4441 The Role of Geohydrology in the Determination of a Spatial Development Framework in the Vredefort Dome World Heritage Site 2010-10-19 doi: 10.3390/w2040742 Izak J. van der Walt Stephanus J. Pretorius Carel B. Schoeman http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/726 To date there has been limited research on integrated water resource management, specifically regarding investments, from a global perspective, largely due to the complexity of the problem and to generally local water management practices. Water demand and supply are very often affected by international factors and with global climate change, population growth and increasing consumption, water management is now more than ever a global issue. This paper gives an overview of current and impending water problems while assessing investment needs for integrated water management as a possible solution to projected water challenges. The analysis compares a business as usual case (BAU) to a scenario in which investments improve water efficiency use across sectors to curb demand, increase innovative supply from desalination and enhance conventional water resources management measures. System dynamics modeling is employed to represent the structural factors influencing water demand and supply in the context of an integrated framework including cross-sectoral linkages. The analysis confirms that sustainable water management is feasible, but it requires investments in the range of $145 billion per year between 2011 and 2050 (0.16% of GDP or $17/person/year) and timely, effective action. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/726 Mon, 18 Oct 2010 00:00:00 CEST Water 2010-10-18 2 4 Article 726 741 2073-4441 An Integrated Assessment of Investments towards Global Water Sustainability 2010-10-18 doi: 10.3390/w2040726 Andrea M. Bassi Zhuohua Tan Sophie Goss http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/711 Within the German-Vietnamese joint research project “Integrated Water Resources Management Vietnam”, Planning and Decision Support Tools on a regional scale are being developed. A Water Balance Tool is utilized to calculate and assess water demands and compares these with the quantity of water resources to identify surpluses or deficits. The sensitivity of water resources and the contamination potential are combined to display water quality aspects within a Contamination Risk Tool. A resulting evaluation is carried out with a Ranking Tool. It identifies areas with high priority need for action. The Planning and Decision Support Tools are being discussed with Vietnamese institutions and authorities. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/4/711 Tue, 28 Sep 2010 00:00:00 CEST Water 2010-09-28 2 4 Article 711 725 2073-4441 Planning and Decision Support Tools for the Integrated Water Resources Management in Vietnam 2010-09-28 doi: 10.3390/w2040711 Christian Jolk Sandra Greassidis Sylvia Jaschinski Harro Stolpe Björn Zindler http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/3/702 Thermodynamic and transport properties of liquid water are not fully understood despite a large amount of research work both experimental and theoretical. The maximum of density and the enhanced anomalies observed at low temperatures are at the origin of several models that, in some cases, predict specific and unique behavior such as spinodal lines or critical points. We show that a careful analysis of the neutron quasi-elastic scattering data, both the incoherent spectra and the dynamic of the partials, is compatible with a polymer-like model, where the hydrogen bond dynamics explains the behavior of water in the non-accessible temperature region extending from −30° C to the glass transition. http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/2/3/702 Wed, 22 Sep 2010 00:00:00 CEST Water 2010-09-22 2 3 Communication 702 710 2073-4441 The “Puzzle” of Water Behavior at Low Temperature 2010-09-22 doi: 10.3390/w2030702 José Teixeira