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Minerals
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Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality
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Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Deposits".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2018) | Viewed by 79965

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Alain Chauvet

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Geosciences Montpellier, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
Interests: mineralized lode; internal texture; trap geometry; structural context; magmatism

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

"Structural Control” remains a crucial point that frequently lacks in any scientific and/or economic analysis of ore deposits, whatever its type and class. The case of lode deposits is particularly adapted, although other deposits, like breccia pipe, stockwerk, massive sulphides, skarn, etc., can, surprisingly, be also concerned. Several concepts like the gold-bearing shear zone have not given satisfying results during the last few decades in term of gold deposit understanding and has been totally abandoned. Additionally, the relationships between magmatism, regional tectonic context and mineralization remain a question that is still debated in several recent publications, thus demonstrating that this question is still relevant and may help in the distinction between intrusion-related and orogenic deposits.

In this Special Issue, we particularly invite any case study of mineral deposits, in which it has been demonstrated that structural geology may have a significant role in the establishment of the deposit model of formation and/or on exploration and exploitation programs. Examples in which the structural model diverges from what is expected in the classical literature are particularly welcomed and are open  for discussion, likely those in which relationships with magmatism can be suspected and/or demonstrated. Indeed, all cases that could illustrate some concepts different from the classic ones, and of what is expected from the theory, may represent significant contributions to this volume.

Dr. Alain Chauvet
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • Mineralized lode
  • Internal texture
  • Trap geometry
  • Structural context
  • Magmatism

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 162 KiB  
Editorial
Editorial for Special Issue “Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality”
by Alain Chauvet
Minerals 2019, 9(3), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9030171 - 11 Mar 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2905
Abstract
“Structural Control” remains a crucial point that is frequently absent in scientific and/or economic analyses of ore deposits, whatever their type and class, although a selection of references illustrates its importance [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality)

Research

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20 pages, 17281 KiB  
Article
Structural Control on the Formation of Pb-Zn Deposits: An Example from the Pyrenean Axial Zone
by Alexandre Cugerone, Emilien Oliot, Alain Chauvet, Jordi Gavaldà Bordes, Angèle Laurent, Elisabeth Le Goff and Bénédicte Cenki-Tok
Minerals 2018, 8(11), 489; https://doi.org/10.3390/min8110489 - 26 Oct 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6719
Abstract
Pb-Zn deposits and specifically Sedimentary-Exhalative (SEDEX) deposits are frequently found in deformed and/or metamorphosed geological terranes. Ore bodies structure is generally difficult to observe and its relationships to the regional structural framework is often lacking. In the Pyrenean Axial Zone (PAZ), the main [...] Read more.
Pb-Zn deposits and specifically Sedimentary-Exhalative (SEDEX) deposits are frequently found in deformed and/or metamorphosed geological terranes. Ore bodies structure is generally difficult to observe and its relationships to the regional structural framework is often lacking. In the Pyrenean Axial Zone (PAZ), the main Pb-Zn mineralizations are commonly considered as Ordovician SEDEX deposits in the literature. New structural field analyzes focusing on the relations between mineralization and regional structures allowed us to classify these Pb-Zn mineralizations into three types: (I) Type 1 corresponds to minor disseminated mineralization, probably syngenetic and from an exhalative source. (II) Type 2a is a stratabound mineralization, epigenetic and synchronous to the Variscan D1 regional deformation event and (III) Type 2b is a vein mineralization, epigenetic and synchronous to the late Variscan D2 regional deformation event. Structural control appears to be a key parameter in concentrating Pb-Zn in the PAZ, as mineralizations occur associated to fold hinges, cleavage, and/or faults. Here we show that the main exploited type 2a and type 2b Pb-Zn mineralizations are intimately controlled by Variscan tectonics. This study demonstrates the predominant role of structural study for unraveling the formation of Pb-Zn deposits especially in deformed/metamorphosed terranes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality)
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23 pages, 10887 KiB  
Article
Structural Controls of Ore Mineralization in a Polydeformed Basement: Field Examples from the Variscan Baccu Locci Shear Zone (SE Sardinia, Italy)
by Antonio Funedda, Stefano Naitza, Cristina Buttau, Fabrizio Cocco and Andrea Dini
Minerals 2018, 8(10), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/min8100456 - 16 Oct 2018
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5438
Abstract
The Baccu Locci mine area is located in a sector of the Variscan Nappe zone of Sardinia (the Baccu Locci shear zone) that hosts several type of ore deposits mined until the first half of the last century. The orebodies consist of lenses [...] Read more.
The Baccu Locci mine area is located in a sector of the Variscan Nappe zone of Sardinia (the Baccu Locci shear zone) that hosts several type of ore deposits mined until the first half of the last century. The orebodies consist of lenses of Zn–Cu sulphides, once interpreted as stratabound, and Qtz–As–Pb sulphide ± gold veins; the implication of structural controls in their origin were previously misinterpreted or not considered. Detailed field mapping, structural analyses, and ore mineralogy allowed for unraveling how different ore parageneses are superimposed each other and to recognize different relationships with the Variscan structures. The sulphide lenses are parallel to the mylonitic foliation, hosted in the hinges of minor order upright antiforms that acted as traps for hydrothermal fluids. The Qtz–As–Pb sulphide veins crosscut the sulphide lenses and are hosted in large dilatational jogs developed in the hanging wall of dextral-reverse faults, whose geometry is influenced by the attitude of reverse limbs of late Variscan folds. The ores in the Baccu Locci shear zone are best interpreted as Variscan orogenic gold-type; veins display mutual crosscutting relationships with mafic dikes dated in the same district at 302 ± 0.2 Ma, a reliable age for the mineralizing events in the area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality)
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21 pages, 6611 KiB  
Article
The Hajjar Regional Transpressive Shear Zone (Guemassa Massif, Morocco): Consequences on the Deformation of the Base-Metal Massive Sulfide Ore
by Safouane Admou, Yannick Branquet, Lakhlifi Badra, Luc Barbanson, Mohamed Outhounjite, Abdelali Khalifa, Mohamed Zouhair and Lhou Maacha
Minerals 2018, 8(10), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/min8100435 - 7 Oct 2018
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5476
Abstract
The genesis of the base-metal massive sulfide deposits hosted within the Moroccan Hercynian Jebilet and Guemassa Massifs is still under debate. No consensus currently exists between the two models that have been proposed to explain the deposits, i.e., (1) syngenetic volcanogenic massive sulfide [...] Read more.
The genesis of the base-metal massive sulfide deposits hosted within the Moroccan Hercynian Jebilet and Guemassa Massifs is still under debate. No consensus currently exists between the two models that have been proposed to explain the deposits, i.e., (1) syngenetic volcanogenic massive sulfide mineralization, and (2) synmetamorphic tectonic fluid-assisted epigenetic mineralization. Conversely, researchers agree that all Hercynian massive sulfide deposits in Morocco are deformed, even though 3D structural mapping at the deposit scale is still lacking. Therefore, while avoiding the use of a model-driven approach, the main aim of this contribution is to establish a first-order structural pattern and the controls of the Hajjar base metal deposit. We used a classical structural geology toolbox in surface and subsurface mining work to image finite strain at different levels. Our data demonstrate that: i) the Hajjar area is affected by a single foliation plane (not two) which developed during a single tectonic event encompassing a HT metamorphism. This syn-metamorphic deformation is not restricted to the Hajjar area, as it is widespread at the western Meseta scale, and it occurred during Late Carboniferous times; ii) the Hajjar ore deposit is hosted within a regional transpressive right-lateral NE-trending shear zone in which syn- to post-metamorphic ductile to brittle shear planes are responsible for significant inflexion (or virgation) of the foliation yielding an anastomosing pattern within the Hajjar shear zone. Again, this feature is not an exception, as various Late Carboniferous-Permian regional scale wrenching shear zones are recognized throughout the Hercynian Meseta orogenic segment. Finally, we present several lines of evidence emphasizing the role of deformation in terms of mechanical and fluid-assisted ore concentrations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality)
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17 pages, 5157 KiB  
Article
Structural Control on Clay Mineral Authigenesis in Faulted Arkosic Sandstone of the Rio do Peixe Basin, Brazil
by Ingrid B. Maciel, Angela Dettori, Fabrizio Balsamo, Francisco H.R. Bezerra, Marcela M. Vieira, Francisco C.C. Nogueira, Emma Salvioli-Mariani and Jorge André B. Sousa
Minerals 2018, 8(9), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/min8090408 - 14 Sep 2018
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5460
Abstract
Clay minerals in structurally complex settings influence fault zone behavior and characteristics such as permeability and frictional properties. This work aims to understand the role of fault zones on clay authigenesis in arkosic, high-porosity sandstones of the Cretaceous Rio do Peixe basin, northeast [...] Read more.
Clay minerals in structurally complex settings influence fault zone behavior and characteristics such as permeability and frictional properties. This work aims to understand the role of fault zones on clay authigenesis in arkosic, high-porosity sandstones of the Cretaceous Rio do Peixe basin, northeast Brazil. We integrated field, petrographic and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations with X-ray diffraction data (bulk and clay-size fractions). Fault zones in the field are characterized by low-porosity deformation bands, typical secondary structures developed in high-porosity sandstones. Laboratory results indicate that in the host rock far from faults, smectite, illite and subordinately kaolinite, are present within the pores of the Rio do Peixe sandstones. Such clay minerals formed after sediment deposition, most likely during shallow diagenetic processes (feldspar dissolution) associated with meteoric water circulation. Surprisingly, within fault zones the same clay minerals are absent or are present in amounts which are significantly lower than those in the undeformed sandstone. This occurs because fault activity obliterates porosity and reduces permeability by cataclasis, thus: (1) destroying the space in which clay minerals can form; and (2) providing a generally impermeable tight fabric in which external meteoric fluid flow is inhibited. We conclude that the development of fault zones in high-porosity arkosic sandstones, contrary to other low-porosity lithologies, inhibits clay mineral authigenesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality)
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17 pages, 5911 KiB  
Article
Tectonic Control, Reconstruction and Preservation of the Tiegelongnan Porphyry and Epithermal Overprinting Cu (Au) Deposit, Central Tibet, China
by Yang Song, Chao Yang, Shaogang Wei, Huanhuan Yang, Xiang Fang and Hongtao Lu
Minerals 2018, 8(9), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/min8090398 - 10 Sep 2018
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5683
Abstract
The newly discovered Tiegelongnan Cu (Au) deposit is a giant porphyry deposit overprinted by a high-sulfidation epithermal deposit in the western part of the Bangong–Nujiang metallogenic belt, Duolong district, central Tibet. It is mainly controlled by the tectonic movement of the Bangong–Nujiang Oceanic [...] Read more.
The newly discovered Tiegelongnan Cu (Au) deposit is a giant porphyry deposit overprinted by a high-sulfidation epithermal deposit in the western part of the Bangong–Nujiang metallogenic belt, Duolong district, central Tibet. It is mainly controlled by the tectonic movement of the Bangong–Nujiang Oceanic Plate (post-subduction extension). After the closure of the Bangong–Nujiang Ocean, porphyry intrusions emplaced at around 121 Ma in the Tiegelongnan area, which might be the result of continental crust thickening and the collision of Qiangtang and Lhasa terranes, based on the crustal radiogenic isotopic signature. Epithermal overprinting on porphyry alteration and mineralization is characterized by veins and fracture filling, and replacement textures between two episodes of alteration and sulfide minerals. Alunite and kaolinite replaced sericite, accompanied with covellite, digenite, enargite, and tennantite replacing chalcopyrite and bornite. This may result from extension after the Qiangtang–Lhasa collision from 116 to 112 Ma, according to the reopened quartz veins filled with later epithermal alteration minerals and sulfides. The Tiegelongnan deposit was preserved by the volcanism at ~110 Ma with volcanic rocks covering on the top before the orebody being fully weathered and eroded. The Tiegelongnan deposit was then probably partly dislocated to further west and deeper level by later structures. The widespread post-mineral volcanic rocks may conceal and preserve some unexposed deposits in this area. Thus, there is a great potential to explore porphyry and epithermal deposit in the Duolong district, and also in the entire Bangong–Nujiang metallogenic belt. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality)
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28 pages, 14845 KiB  
Article
Fault Zone Evolution and Development of a Structural and Hydrological Barrier: The Quartz Breccia in the Kiggavik Area (Nunavut, Canada) and Its Control on Uranium Mineralization
by Alexis Grare, Olivier Lacombe, Julien Mercadier, Antonio Benedicto, Marie Guilcher, Anna Trave, Patrick Ledru and John Robbins
Minerals 2018, 8(8), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/min8080319 - 27 Jul 2018
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6077
Abstract
In the Kiggavik area (Nunavut, Canada), major fault zones along, or close to, where uranium deposits are found are often associated with occurrence of thick quartz breccia (QB) bodies. These bodies formed in an early stage (~1750 Ma) of the long-lasting tectonic history [...] Read more.
In the Kiggavik area (Nunavut, Canada), major fault zones along, or close to, where uranium deposits are found are often associated with occurrence of thick quartz breccia (QB) bodies. These bodies formed in an early stage (~1750 Ma) of the long-lasting tectonic history of the Archean basement, and of the Proterozoic Thelon basin. The main characteristics of the QB are addressed in this study; through field work, macro and microscopic observations, cathodoluminescence microscopy, trace elements, and oxygen isotopic signatures of the quartz forming the QB. Faults formed earlier during syn- to post-orogenic rifting (1850–1750 Ma) were subsequently reactivated, and underwent cycles of cataclasis, pervasive silicification, hydraulic brecciation, and quartz recrystallization. This was synchronous with the circulation of meteoric fluids mixing with Si-rich magmatic-derived fluids at depth, and were coeval with the emplacement of the Kivalliq igneous suite at 1750 Ma. These processes led to the emplacement of up to 30 m thick QB, which behaved as a mechanically strong, transverse hydraulic barrier that localized later fracturing, and compartmentalized/channelized vertical flow of uranium-bearing fluids after the deposition of the Thelon Basin (post 1750 Ma). The development and locations of QB control the location of uranium mineralization in the Kiggavik area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality)
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18 pages, 5732 KiB  
Article
Multi-Stage Deformation of the Khangalas Ore Cluster (Verkhoyansk-Kolyma Folded Region, Northeast Russia): Ore-Controlling Reverse Thrust Faults and Post-Mineral Strike-Slip Faults
by Valery Y. Fridovsky, Maxim V. Kudrin and Lena I. Polufuntikova
Minerals 2018, 8(7), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/min8070270 - 26 Jun 2018
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4688
Abstract
This study reports the results of the analysis of multi-stage deformation structures of the Khangalas gold ore cluster, northeast Russia. Four Late Mesozoic-Early Eocene deformation stages were identified. The first deformation event (D1) was characterized by the development of NW-striking tight to isoclinal [...] Read more.
This study reports the results of the analysis of multi-stage deformation structures of the Khangalas gold ore cluster, northeast Russia. Four Late Mesozoic-Early Eocene deformation stages were identified. The first deformation event (D1) was characterized by the development of NW-striking tight to isoclinal folds of the first generation (F1) and interstratal detachment thrusts. Major folds, extensive thrusts, boudinage, cleavage, auriferous mineralized fault zones and quartz-vein gold mineralization were formed in the reverse and thrust fault stress field during the progressive deformation stage (D1), with NE-SW-oriented σ1. Post-ore deformation is widely manifested in the region. Structures D2 and D3 are coaxial. Sinistral strike-slip motions (D2 and D3) occurred along NW-trending faults under prevailing W-E compression. They were accompanied by the formation of NS- and NE-striking F2–3 folds with steep hinges and by bending of the earlier formed structures, among them ore-controlling ones. The last deformation event (D4) was represented by normal-dextral strike-slip faulting, refolding of rocks, pre-existing structures and ore bodies and by the development of folds with steep hinges. Key structural elements of varying age are described, the chronology of deformation events and mineralization reconstructed and their relation to geodynamic events in northeast Asia established. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality)
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26 pages, 45973 KiB  
Article
Structural Controls on Copper Mineralization in the Tongling Ore District, Eastern China: Evidence from Spatial Analysis
by Tao Sun, Ying Xu, Xuhui Yu, Weiming Liu, Ruixue Li, Zijuan Hu and Yun Wang
Minerals 2018, 8(6), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/min8060254 - 15 Jun 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6496
Abstract
Structures exert significant controls on hydrothermal mineralization, although such controls commonly have cryptic expression in geological datasets dominated by 2D maps. Analysis of spatial patterns of mineral deposits and quantification of their correlation with detailed structural features are beneficial to understand the plausible [...] Read more.
Structures exert significant controls on hydrothermal mineralization, although such controls commonly have cryptic expression in geological datasets dominated by 2D maps. Analysis of spatial patterns of mineral deposits and quantification of their correlation with detailed structural features are beneficial to understand the plausible structural controls on mineralization. In this paper, a series of GIS-based spatial methods, including fractal, Fry, distance distribution and weights-of-evidence analyses, were employed to reveal structural controls on copper mineralization in the Tongling ore district, eastern China. The results indicate that Yanshanian intrusions exert the most significant control on copper mineralization, followed by EW-trending faults, intersections of basement faults and folds. The scale-variable distribution patterns of copper occurrences are attributed to the different structural controls operating in the basement and sedimentary cover. In the basement, EW-trending faults serve as pathways for channeling Yanshanian magma from a deep magma chamber to structurally controlled trap zones in the caprocks, imposing an important regional control on the spatial distribution of Cretaceous magmatic-hydrothermal system genetically related to copper mineralization. In the sedimentary cover, bedding-parallel shear zones, formed during the progressive folding and shearing in Indosinian and overprinted by tensional deformation in Yanshanian, act as favorable sites for hosting, focusing and depositing the ore-bearing fluids, playing a vital role in the localization of stratabound deposits at fine scale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality)
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Review

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22 pages, 12810 KiB  
Review
Structural Control of Ore Deposits: The Role of Pre-Existing Structures on the Formation of Mineralised Vein Systems
by Alain CHAUVET
Minerals 2019, 9(1), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9010056 - 17 Jan 2019
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 18033
Abstract
The major role played by pre-existing structures in the formation of vein-style mineral deposits is demonstrated with several examples. The control of a pre-existing decollement level on the formation of a crustal extension-related (collapse) gold deposit is first illustrated in the Quadrilátero Ferrífero [...] Read more.
The major role played by pre-existing structures in the formation of vein-style mineral deposits is demonstrated with several examples. The control of a pre-existing decollement level on the formation of a crustal extension-related (collapse) gold deposit is first illustrated in the Quadrilátero Ferrífero from Brazil. Shear zone and decollement structures were also examined and shown to control veins formation by three distinct processes: (i) re-aperture and re-using of wrench shear zones in the case of Shila gold mines (south Peru); (ii) remobilisation of metal in volcanic-hosted massive sulphide (VHMS) deposit by subsequent tectonic events and formation of a secondary stockwork controlled by structures created during this event (Iberian Pyrite Belt, Spain); (iii) formation of economic stockwork by contrasting deformation behaviours between ductile black schist versus brittle more competent dolomite (Cu-Ifri deposit, Morocco). Two examples involve changing of rheological competence within zones affected by deformation and/or alteration in order to receive the mineralisation (case studies of Achmmach, Morocco, and Mina Soriana, Spain). The last case underscores the significance of the magmatic–hydrothermal transition in the formation of mesothermal gold deposits (Bruès mine, Spain). All these examples clearly demonstrate the crucial role played by previously formed structures and/or texture in the development and formation of ore deposits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality)
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48 pages, 23107 KiB  
Review
The Jbel Saghro Au(–Ag, Cu) and Ag–Hg Metallogenetic Province: Product of a Long-Lived Ediacaran Tectono-Magmatic Evolution in the Moroccan Anti-Atlas
by Johann Tuduri, Alain Chauvet, Luc Barbanson, Jean-Louis Bourdier, Mohamed Labriki, Aomar Ennaciri, Lakhlifi Badra, Michel Dubois, Christelle Ennaciri-Leloix, Stanislas Sizaret and Lhou Maacha
Minerals 2018, 8(12), 592; https://doi.org/10.3390/min8120592 - 13 Dec 2018
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 9442
Abstract
The Jbel Saghro is interpreted as part of a long-lived silicic large igneous province. The area comprises two lithostructural complexes. The Lower Complex consists of folded metagreywackes and N070–090°E dextral shear zones, which roughly results from a NW–SE to NNW–SSE shortening direction related [...] Read more.
The Jbel Saghro is interpreted as part of a long-lived silicic large igneous province. The area comprises two lithostructural complexes. The Lower Complex consists of folded metagreywackes and N070–090°E dextral shear zones, which roughly results from a NW–SE to NNW–SSE shortening direction related to a D1 transpressive tectonic stage. D1 is also combined with syntectonic plutons emplaced between ca. 615 and 575 Ma. The Upper Complex is defined by ash-flow caldera emplacements, thick and widespread ignimbrites, lavas and volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks with related intrusives that were emplaced in three main magmatic flare ups at ca. 575, 565 and 555 Ma. It lies unconformably on the Lower Complex units and was affected by a D2 trantensive tectonic stage. Between 550 and 540 Ma, the magmatic activity became slightly alkaline and of lower extent. Ore deposits show specific features, but remain controlled by the same structural setting: a NNW–SSE shortening direction related to both D1 and D2 stages. Porphyry Au(–Cu–Mo) and intrusion-related gold deposits were emplaced in an earlier stage between 580 and 565 Ma. Intermediate sulfidation epithermal deposits may have been emplaced during lull periods after the second and (or) the third flare-ups (560–550 Ma). Low sulfidation epithermal deposits were emplaced late during the felsic alkaline magmatic stage (550–520 Ma). The D2 stage, therefore, provided extensional structures that enabled fluid circulations and magmatic-hydrothermal ore forming processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality)
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