Journal Description
Computers
Computers
is an international, scientific, peer-reviewed, open access journal of computer science, including computer and network architecture and computer–human interaction as its main foci, published monthly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), dblp, Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q2 (Computer Networks and Communications)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 17.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
2.8 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
2.6 (2022)
Latest Articles
Smart Healthcare System in Server-Less Environment: Concepts, Architecture, Challenges, Future Directions
Computers 2024, 13(4), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040105 - 19 Apr 2024
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Server-less computing is a novel cloud-based paradigm that is gaining popularity today for running widely distributed applications. When it comes to server-less computing, features are available via subscription. Server-less computing is advantageous to developers since it lets them install and run programs without
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Server-less computing is a novel cloud-based paradigm that is gaining popularity today for running widely distributed applications. When it comes to server-less computing, features are available via subscription. Server-less computing is advantageous to developers since it lets them install and run programs without worrying about the underlying architecture. A common choice for code deployment these days, server-less design is preferred because of its independence, affordability, and simplicity. The healthcare industry is one excellent setting in which server-less computing can shine. In the existing literature, we can see that fewer studies have been put forward or explored in the area of server-less computing with respect to smart healthcare systems. A cloud infrastructure can help deliver services to both users and healthcare providers. The main aim of our research is to cover various topics on the implementation of server-less computing in the current healthcare sector. We have carried out our studies, which are adopted in the healthcare domain and reported on an in-depth analysis in this article. We have listed various issues and challenges, and various recommendations to adopt server-less computing in the healthcare sector.
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Open AccessArticle
Using Privacy-Preserving Algorithms and Blockchain Tokens to Monetize Industrial Data in Digital Marketplaces
by
Borja Bordel Sánchez, Ramón Alcarria, Latif Ladid and Aurel Machalek
Computers 2024, 13(4), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040104 - 18 Apr 2024
Abstract
The data economy has arisen in most developed countries. Instruments and tools to extract knowledge and value from large collections of data are now available and enable new industries, business models, and jobs. However, the current data market is asymmetric and prevents companies
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The data economy has arisen in most developed countries. Instruments and tools to extract knowledge and value from large collections of data are now available and enable new industries, business models, and jobs. However, the current data market is asymmetric and prevents companies from competing fairly. On the one hand, only very specialized digital organizations can manage complex data technologies such as Artificial Intelligence and obtain great benefits from third-party data at a very reduced cost. On the other hand, datasets are produced by regular companies as valueless sub-products that assume great costs. These companies have no mechanisms to negotiate a fair distribution of the benefits derived from their industrial data, which are often transferred for free. Therefore, new digital data-driven marketplaces must be enabled to facilitate fair data trading among all industrial agents. In this paper, we propose a blockchain-enabled solution to monetize industrial data. Industries can upload their data to an Inter-Planetary File System (IPFS) using a web interface, where the data are randomized through a privacy-preserving algorithm. In parallel, a blockchain network creates a Non-Fungible Token (NFT) to represent the dataset. So, only the NFT owner can obtain the required seed to derandomize and extract all data from the IPFS. Data trading is then represented by NFT trading and is based on fungible tokens, so it is easier to adapt prices to the real economy. Auctions and purchases are also managed through a common web interface. Experimental validation based on a pilot deployment is conducted. The results show a significant improvement in the data transactions and quality of experience of industrial agents.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from 18th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI'2023))
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Open AccessArticle
Continuous Authentication in the Digital Age: An Analysis of Reinforcement Learning and Behavioral Biometrics
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Priya Bansal and Abdelkader Ouda
Computers 2024, 13(4), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040103 - 18 Apr 2024
Abstract
This research article delves into the development of a reinforcement learning (RL)-based continuous authentication system utilizing behavioral biometrics for user identification on computing devices. Keystroke dynamics are employed to capture unique behavioral biometric signatures, while a reward-driven RL model is deployed to authenticate
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This research article delves into the development of a reinforcement learning (RL)-based continuous authentication system utilizing behavioral biometrics for user identification on computing devices. Keystroke dynamics are employed to capture unique behavioral biometric signatures, while a reward-driven RL model is deployed to authenticate users throughout their sessions. The proposed system augments conventional authentication mechanisms, fortifying them with an additional layer of security to create a robust continuous authentication framework compatible with static authentication systems. The methodology entails training an RL model to discern atypical user typing patterns and identify potentially suspicious activities. Each user’s historical data are utilized to train an agent, which undergoes preprocessing to generate episodes for learning purposes. The environment involves the retrieval of observations, which are intentionally perturbed to facilitate learning of nonlinear behaviors. The observation vector encompasses both ongoing and summarized features. A binary and minimalist reward function is employed, with principal component analysis (PCA) utilized for encoding ongoing features, and the double deep Q-network (DDQN) algorithm implemented through a fully connected neural network serving as the policy net. Evaluation results showcase training accuracy and equal error rate (EER) ranging from 94.7% to 100% and 0 to 0.0126, respectively, while test accuracy and EER fall within the range of approximately 81.06% to 93.5% and 0.0323 to 0.11, respectively, for all users as encoder features increase in number. These outcomes are achieved through RL’s iterative refinement of rewards via trial and error, leading to enhanced accuracy over time as more data are processed and incorporated into the system.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Authentication Methods)
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Open AccessArticle
A Holistic Approach to Use Educational Robots for Supporting Computer Science Courses
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Zhumaniyaz Mamatnabiyev, Christos Chronis, Iraklis Varlamis, Yassine Himeur and Meirambek Zhaparov
Computers 2024, 13(4), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040102 - 17 Apr 2024
Abstract
Robots are intelligent machines that are capable of autonomously performing intricate sequences of actions, with their functionality being primarily driven by computer programs and machine learning models. Educational robots are specifically designed and used for teaching and learning purposes and attain the interest
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Robots are intelligent machines that are capable of autonomously performing intricate sequences of actions, with their functionality being primarily driven by computer programs and machine learning models. Educational robots are specifically designed and used for teaching and learning purposes and attain the interest of learners in gaining knowledge about science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics. Educational robots are widely applied in different fields of primary and secondary education, but their usage in teaching higher education subjects is limited. Even when educational robots are used in tertiary education, the use is sporadic, targets specific courses or subjects, and employs robots with narrow applicability. In this work, we propose a holistic approach to the use of educational robots in tertiary education. We demonstrate how an open source educational robot can be used by colleges, and universities in teaching multiple courses of a computer science curriculum, fostering computational and creative thinking in practice. We rely on an open-source and open design educational robot, called FOSSBot, which contains various IoT technologies for measuring data, processing it, and interacting with the physical world. Grace to its open nature, FOSSBot can be used in preparing the content and supporting learning activities for different subjects such as electronics, computer networks, artificial intelligence, computer vision, etc. To support our claim, we describe a computer science curriculum containing a wide range of computer science courses and explain how each course can be supported by providing indicative activities. The proposed one-year curriculum can be delivered at the postgraduate level, allowing computer science graduates to delve deep into Computer Science subjects. After examining related works that propose the use of robots in academic curricula we detect the gap that still exists for a curriculum that is linked to an educational robot and we present in detail each proposed course, the software libraries that can be employed for each course and the possible extensions to the open robot that will allow to further extend the curriculum with more topics or enhance it with activities. With our work, we show that by incorporating educational robots in higher education we can address this gap and provide a new ledger for boosting tertiary education.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Computers 2024)
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Open AccessArticle
Human Emotion Recognition Based on Spatio-Temporal Facial Features Using HOG-HOF and VGG-LSTM
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Hajar Chouhayebi, Mohamed Adnane Mahraz, Jamal Riffi, Hamid Tairi and Nawal Alioua
Computers 2024, 13(4), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040101 - 16 Apr 2024
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Human emotion recognition is crucial in various technological domains, reflecting our growing reliance on technology. Facial expressions play a vital role in conveying and preserving human emotions. While deep learning has been successful in recognizing emotions in video sequences, it struggles to effectively
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Human emotion recognition is crucial in various technological domains, reflecting our growing reliance on technology. Facial expressions play a vital role in conveying and preserving human emotions. While deep learning has been successful in recognizing emotions in video sequences, it struggles to effectively model spatio-temporal interactions and identify salient features, limiting its accuracy. This research paper proposed an innovative algorithm for facial expression recognition which combined a deep learning algorithm and dynamic texture methods. In the initial phase of this study, facial features were extracted using the Visual-Geometry-Group (VGG19) model and input into Long-Short-Term-Memory (LSTM) cells to capture spatio-temporal information. Additionally, the HOG-HOF descriptor was utilized to extract dynamic features from video sequences, capturing changes in facial appearance over time. Combining these models using the Multimodal-Compact-Bilinear (MCB) model resulted in an effective descriptor vector. This vector was then classified using a Support Vector Machine (SVM) classifier, chosen for its simpler interpretability compared to deep learning models. This choice facilitates better understanding of the decision-making process behind emotion classification. In the experimental phase, the fusion method outperformed existing state-of-the-art methods on the eNTERFACE05 database, with an improvement margin of approximately 1%. In summary, the proposed approach exhibited superior accuracy and robust detection capabilities.
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Open AccessReview
Digital Twin and 3D Digital Twin: Concepts, Applications, and Challenges in Industry 4.0 for Digital Twin
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April Lia Hananto, Andy Tirta, Safarudin Gazali Herawan, Muhammad Idris, Manzoore Elahi M. Soudagar, Djati Wibowo Djamari and Ibham Veza
Computers 2024, 13(4), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040100 - 16 Apr 2024
Abstract
The rapid development of digitalization, the Internet of Things (IoT), and Industry 4.0 has led to the emergence of the digital twin concept. IoT is an important pillar of the digital twin. The digital twin serves as a crucial link, merging the physical
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The rapid development of digitalization, the Internet of Things (IoT), and Industry 4.0 has led to the emergence of the digital twin concept. IoT is an important pillar of the digital twin. The digital twin serves as a crucial link, merging the physical and digital territories of Industry 4.0. Digital twins are beneficial to numerous industries, providing the capability to perform advanced analytics, create detailed simulations, and facilitate informed decision-making that IoT supports. This paper presents a review of the literature on digital twins, discussing its concepts, definitions, frameworks, application methods, and challenges. The review spans various domains, including manufacturing, energy, agriculture, maintenance, construction, transportation, and smart cities in Industry 4.0. The present study suggests that the terminology “3 dimensional (3D) digital twin” is a more fitting descriptor for digital twin technology assisted by IoT. The aforementioned statement serves as the central argument of the study. This article advocates for a shift in terminology, replacing “digital twin” with “3D digital twin” to more accurately depict the technology’s innate potential and capabilities in Industry 4.0. We aim to establish that “3D digital twin” offers a more precise and holistic representation of the technology. By doing so, we underline the digital twin’s analytical ability and capacity to offer an intuitive understanding of systems, which can significantly streamline decision-making processes using the digital twin.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence in Industrial IoT Applications)
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Detection of Deepfake Media Using a Hybrid CNN–RNN Model and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) Algorithm
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Aryaf Al-Adwan, Hadeel Alazzam, Noor Al-Anbaki and Eman Alduweib
Computers 2024, 13(4), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040099 - 15 Apr 2024
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Deepfakes are digital audio, video, or images manipulated using machine learning algorithms. These manipulated media files can convincingly depict individuals doing or saying things they never actually did. Deepfakes pose significant risks to our lives, including national security, financial markets, and personal privacy.
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Deepfakes are digital audio, video, or images manipulated using machine learning algorithms. These manipulated media files can convincingly depict individuals doing or saying things they never actually did. Deepfakes pose significant risks to our lives, including national security, financial markets, and personal privacy. The ability to create convincing deep fakes can also harm individuals’ reputations and can be used to spread disinformation and fake news. As such, there is a growing need for reliable and accurate methods to detect deep fakes and prevent their harmful effects. In this paper, a hybrid convolutional neural network (CNN) and recurrent neural network (RNN) with a particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm is utilized to demonstrate a deep learning strategy for detecting deepfake videos. High accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and F1 score were attained by the proposed approach when tested on two publicly available datasets: Celeb-DF and the Deepfake Detection Challenge Dataset (DFDC). Specifically, the proposed method achieved an average accuracy of 97.26% on Celeb-DF and an average accuracy of 94.2% on DFDC. The results were compared to other state-of-the-art methods and showed that the proposed method outperformed many. The proposed method can effectively detect deepfake videos, which is essential for identifying and preventing the spread of manipulated content online.
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Open AccessArticle
MTL-AraBERT: An Enhanced Multi-Task Learning Model for Arabic Aspect-Based Sentiment Analysis
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Arwa Fadel, Mostafa Saleh, Reda Salama and Osama Abulnaja
Computers 2024, 13(4), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040098 - 15 Apr 2024
Abstract
Aspect-based sentiment analysis (ABSA) is a fine-grained type of sentiment analysis; it works on an aspect level. It mainly focuses on extracting aspect terms from text or reviews, categorizing the aspect terms, and classifying the sentiment polarities toward each aspect term and aspect
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Aspect-based sentiment analysis (ABSA) is a fine-grained type of sentiment analysis; it works on an aspect level. It mainly focuses on extracting aspect terms from text or reviews, categorizing the aspect terms, and classifying the sentiment polarities toward each aspect term and aspect category. Aspect term extraction (ATE) and aspect category detection (ACD) are interdependent and closely associated tasks. However, the majority of the current literature on Arabic aspect-based sentiment analysis (ABSA) deals with these tasks individually, assumes that aspect terms are already identified, or employs a pipeline model. Pipeline solutions employ single models for each task, where the output of the ATE model is utilized as the input for the ACD model. This sequential process can lead to the propagation of errors across different stages, as the performance of the ACD model is influenced by any errors produced by the ATE model. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to investigate a multi-task learning approach based on transfer learning and transformers. We propose a multi-task learning model (MTL) that utilizes the pre-trained language model (AraBERT), namely, the MTL-AraBERT model, for extracting Arabic aspect terms and aspect categories simultaneously. Specifically, we focused on training a single model that simultaneously and jointly addressed both subtasks. Moreover, this paper also proposes a model integrating AraBERT, single pair classification, and BiLSTM/BiGRU that can be applied to aspect term polarity classification (APC) and aspect category polarity classification (ACPC). All proposed models were evaluated using the SemEval-2016 annotated dataset for the Arabic hotel dataset. The experiment results of the MTL model demonstrate that the proposed models achieved comparable or better performance than state-of-the-art works (F1-scores of 80.32% for the ATE and 68.21% for the ACD). The proposed SPC-BERT model demonstrated high accuracy, reaching 89.02% and 89.36 for APC and ACPC, respectively. These improvements hold significant potential for future research in Arabic ABSA.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Harnessing Artificial Intelligence for Social and Semantic Understanding)
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A Survey of Security Challenges in Cloud-Based SCADA Systems
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Arwa Wali and Fatimah Alshehry
Computers 2024, 13(4), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040097 - 11 Apr 2024
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Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems enable industrial organizations to control and monitor real-time data and industrial processes. Migrating SCADA systems to cloud environments can enhance the performance of traditional systems by improving storage capacity, reliability, and availability while reducing technical and
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Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems enable industrial organizations to control and monitor real-time data and industrial processes. Migrating SCADA systems to cloud environments can enhance the performance of traditional systems by improving storage capacity, reliability, and availability while reducing technical and industrial costs. However, the increasing frequency of cloud cyberattacks poses a significant challenge to such systems. In addition, current research on cloud-based SCADA systems often focuses on a limited range of attack types, with findings scattered across various studies. This research comprehensively surveys the most common cybersecurity vulnerabilities and attacks facing cloud-based SCADA systems. It identifies four primary vulnerability factors: connectivity with cloud services, shared infrastructure, malicious insiders, and the security of SCADA protocols. This study categorizes cyberattacks targeting these systems into five main groups: hardware, software, communication and protocol-specific, control process, and insider attacks. In addition, this study proposes security solutions to mitigate the impact of cyberattacks on these control systems.
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Open AccessSystematic Review
The Use of Integrated Multichannel Records in Learning Studies in Higher Education: A Systematic Review of the Last 10 Years
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Irene González-Díez, Carmen Varela and María Consuelo Sáiz-Manzanares
Computers 2024, 13(4), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040096 - 10 Apr 2024
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Neurophysiological measures have been used in the field of education to improve our knowledge about the cognitive processes underlying learning. Furthermore, the combined use of different neuropsychological measures has deepened our understanding of these processes. The main objective of this systematic review is
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Neurophysiological measures have been used in the field of education to improve our knowledge about the cognitive processes underlying learning. Furthermore, the combined use of different neuropsychological measures has deepened our understanding of these processes. The main objective of this systematic review is to provide a comprehensive picture of the use of integrated multichannel records in higher education. The bibliographic sources for the review were Web of Science, PsycINFO, Scopus, and Psicodoc databases. After a screening process by two independent reviewers, 10 articles were included according to prespecified inclusion criteria. In general, integrated recording of eye tracking and electroencephalograms were the most commonly used metrics, followed by integrated recording of eye tracking and electrodermal activity. Cognitive load was the most widely investigated learning-related cognitive process using integrated multichannel records. To date, most research has focused only on one neurophysiological measure. Furthermore, to our knowledge, no study has systematically investigated the use of integrated multichannel records in higher education. This systematic review provides a comprehensive picture of the current use of integrated multichannel records in higher education. Its findings may help design innovative educational programs, particularly in the online context. The findings provide a basis for future research and decision making regarding the use of integrated multichannel records in higher education.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Computers 2024)
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Open AccessArticle
Voltage and Reactive Power-Optimization Model for Active Distribution Networks Based on Second-Order Cone Algorithm
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Yaxuan Xu, Jihao Han, Zi Yin, Qingyang Liu, Chenxu Dai and Zhanlin Ji
Computers 2024, 13(4), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040095 - 09 Apr 2024
Abstract
To address the challenges associated with wind power integration, this paper analyzes the impact of distributed renewable energy on the voltage of the distribution network. Taking into account the fast control of photovoltaic inverters and the unique characteristics of photovoltaic arrays, we establish
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To address the challenges associated with wind power integration, this paper analyzes the impact of distributed renewable energy on the voltage of the distribution network. Taking into account the fast control of photovoltaic inverters and the unique characteristics of photovoltaic arrays, we establish an active distribution network voltage reactive power-optimization model for planning the active distribution network. The model involves solving the original non-convex and non-linear power-flow-optimization problem. By introducing the second-order cone relaxation algorithm, we transform the model into a second-order cone programming model, making it easier to solve and yielding good results. The optimized parameters are then applied to the IEEE 33-node distribution system, where the phase angle of the node voltage is adjusted to optimize the reactive power of the entire power system, thereby demonstrating the effectiveness of utilizing a second-order cone programming algorithm for reactive power optimization in a comprehensive manner. Subsequently, active distribution network power quality control is implemented, resulting in a reduction in network loss from 0.41 MW to 0.02 MW. This reduces power loss rates, increases utilization efficiency by approximately 94%, optimizes power quality management, and ensures that users receive high-quality electrical energy.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Networking and Computing 2022)
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Open AccessArticle
Toward Optimal Virtualization: An Updated Comparative Analysis of Docker and LXD Container Technologies
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Daniel Silva, João Rafael and Alexandre Fonte
Computers 2024, 13(4), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040094 - 09 Apr 2024
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Traditional hypervisor-assisted virtualization is a leading virtualization technology in data centers, providing cost savings (CapEx and OpEx), high availability, and disaster recovery. However, its inherent overhead may hinder performance and seems not scale or be flexible enough for certain applications, such as microservices,
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Traditional hypervisor-assisted virtualization is a leading virtualization technology in data centers, providing cost savings (CapEx and OpEx), high availability, and disaster recovery. However, its inherent overhead may hinder performance and seems not scale or be flexible enough for certain applications, such as microservices, where deploying an application using a virtual machine is a longer and resource-intensive process. Container-based virtualization has received attention, especially with Docker, as an alternative, which also facilitates continuous integration/continuous deployment (CI/CD). Meanwhile, LXD has reactivated the interest in Linux LXC containers, which provides unique operations, including live migration and full OS emulation. A careful analysis of both options is crucial for organizations to decide which best suits their needs. This study revisits key concepts about containers, exposes the advantages and limitations of each container technology, and provides an up-to-date performance comparison between both types of containers (applicational vs. system). Using extensive benchmarks and well-known workload metrics such as CPU scores, disk speed, and network throughput, we assess their performance and quantify their virtualization overhead. Our results show a clear overall trend toward meritorious performance and the maturity of both technologies (Docker and LXD), with low overhead and scalable performance. Notably, LXD shows greater stability with consistent performance variability.
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Open AccessArticle
GFLASSO-LR: Logistic Regression with Generalized Fused LASSO for Gene Selection in High-Dimensional Cancer Classification
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Ahmed Bir-Jmel, Sidi Mohamed Douiri, Souad El Bernoussi, Ayyad Maafiri, Yassine Himeur, Shadi Atalla, Wathiq Mansoor and Hussain Al-Ahmad
Computers 2024, 13(4), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040093 - 06 Apr 2024
Abstract
Advancements in genomic technologies have paved the way for significant breakthroughs in cancer diagnostics, with DNA microarray technology standing at the forefront of identifying genetic expressions associated with various cancer types. Despite its potential, the vast dimensionality of microarray data presents a formidable
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Advancements in genomic technologies have paved the way for significant breakthroughs in cancer diagnostics, with DNA microarray technology standing at the forefront of identifying genetic expressions associated with various cancer types. Despite its potential, the vast dimensionality of microarray data presents a formidable challenge, necessitating efficient dimension reduction and gene selection methods to accurately identify cancerous tumors. In response to this challenge, this study introduces an innovative strategy for microarray data dimension reduction and crucial gene set selection, aiming to enhance the accuracy of cancerous tumor identification. Leveraging DNA microarray technology, our method focuses on pinpointing significant genes implicated in tumor development, aiding the development of sophisticated computerized diagnostic tools. Our technique synergizes gene selection with classifier training within a logistic regression framework, utilizing a generalized Fused LASSO (GFLASSO-LR) regularizer. This regularization incorporates two penalties: one for selecting pertinent genes and another for emphasizing adjacent genes of importance to the target class, thus achieving an optimal trade-off between gene relevance and redundancy. The optimization challenge posed by our approach is tackled using a sub-gradient algorithm, designed to meet specific convergence prerequisites. We establish that our algorithm’s objective function is convex, Lipschitz continuous, and possesses a global minimum, ensuring reliability in the gene selection process. A numerical evaluation of the method’s parameters further substantiates its effectiveness. Experimental outcomes affirm the GFLASSO-LR methodology’s high efficiency in processing high-dimensional microarray data for cancer classification. It effectively identifies compact gene subsets, significantly enhancing classification performance and demonstrating its potential as a powerful tool in cancer research and diagnostics.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine and Deep Learning in the Health Domain 2024)
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Open AccessArticle
The Explainability of Transformers: Current Status and Directions
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Paolo Fantozzi and Maurizio Naldi
Computers 2024, 13(4), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040092 - 04 Apr 2024
Abstract
An increasing demand for model explainability has accompanied the widespread adoption of transformers in various fields of applications. In this paper, we conduct a survey of the existing literature on the explainability of transformers. We provide a taxonomy of methods based on the
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An increasing demand for model explainability has accompanied the widespread adoption of transformers in various fields of applications. In this paper, we conduct a survey of the existing literature on the explainability of transformers. We provide a taxonomy of methods based on the combination of transformer components that are leveraged to arrive at the explanation. For each method, we describe its mechanism and survey its applications. We find out that attention-based methods, both alone and in conjunction with activation-based and gradient-based methods, are the most employed ones. A growing attention is also devoted to the deployment of visualization techniques to help the explanation process.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deep Learning and Explainable Artificial Intelligence)
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Open AccessReview
Study Trends and Core Content Trends of Research on Enhancing Computational Thinking: An Incorporated Bibliometric and Content Analysis Based on the Scopus Database
by
Ling-Hsiu Chen and Ha Thi The Nguyen
Computers 2024, 13(4), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040091 - 03 Apr 2024
Abstract
Over the last decade, research on evolving computational thinking (CT) has garnered heightened attention. Assessing the publication tendencies and nucleus contents of investigations on progressing CT to direct future research initiatives, develop policies, and integrate them into instructional materials is timely and exceedingly
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Over the last decade, research on evolving computational thinking (CT) has garnered heightened attention. Assessing the publication tendencies and nucleus contents of investigations on progressing CT to direct future research initiatives, develop policies, and integrate them into instructional materials is timely and exceedingly essential in education. Therefore, this research reviewed publications on progressing CT to identify research trends and core contents published in the Scopus database from 2008 to May 2022. For this reason, this study applied bibliometric and content analysis to 132 selected publications. After examining bibliometrics, the findings indicate a steady increase in publications related to game-based learning (GBL) and CT, reaching a peak in 2021, with the United States emerging as the most prolific contributor in terms of authors, institutions, and countries). The leading country in citations is primarily China. The document that received the most citations is Hsu’s 2018 paper on “Computers and Education”. Analysis of keywords and themes reveals core content tendencies, emphasizing teaching methods and attitudes aimed at improving CT via GBL. These results offer valuable insights for researchers and educators to inform their future work. However, future studies may benefit from including other databases such as Web of Science (WoS) and PubMed, employing alternative bibliometric software like VOSviewer or CiteSpace, as well as collecting data from June 2022.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Trends in Computer Programming Education)
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Open AccessArticle
Computer Vision Approach in Monitoring for Illicit and Copyrighted Objects in Digital Manufacturing
by
Ihar Volkau, Sergei Krasovskii, Abdul Mujeeb and Helen Balinsky
Computers 2024, 13(4), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040090 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
We propose a monitoring system for detecting illicit and copyrighted objects in digital manufacturing (DM). Our system is based on extracting and analyzing high-dimensional data from blueprints of three-dimensional (3D) objects. We aim to protect the legal interests of DM service providers, who
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We propose a monitoring system for detecting illicit and copyrighted objects in digital manufacturing (DM). Our system is based on extracting and analyzing high-dimensional data from blueprints of three-dimensional (3D) objects. We aim to protect the legal interests of DM service providers, who may receive requests for 3D printing from external sources, such as emails or uploads. Such requests may contain blueprints of objects that are illegal, restricted, or otherwise controlled in the country of operation or protected by copyright. Without a reliable way to identify such objects, the service provider may unknowingly violate the laws and regulations and face legal consequences. Therefore, we propose a multi-layer system that automatically detects and flags such objects before the 3D printing process begins. We present efficient computer vision algorithms for object analysis and scalable system architecture for data storage and processing and explain the rationale behind the suggested system architecture.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Image Processing and Computer Vision)
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Open AccessArticle
Lite2: A Schemaless Zero-Copy Serialization Format
by
Tianyi Chen, Xiaotong Guan, Shi Shuai, Cuiting Huang and Michal Aibin
Computers 2024, 13(4), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040089 - 28 Mar 2024
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In the field of data transmission and storage, serialization formats play a crucial role by converting complex data structures into a byte stream that can be easily stored, transmitted, and reconstructed. Despite the myriad available serialization formats, ranging from JSON to Protobuf, each
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In the field of data transmission and storage, serialization formats play a crucial role by converting complex data structures into a byte stream that can be easily stored, transmitted, and reconstructed. Despite the myriad available serialization formats, ranging from JSON to Protobuf, each has limitations, particularly in balancing schema flexibility, performance, and data copying overhead. This paper introduces Lite2, a novel data serialization format that addresses these challenges by combining schemaless flexibility with the efficiency of zero-copy operations for flat or key–value pair data types. Unlike traditional formats that often require a predefined schema and involve significant data copying during serialization and deserialization, Lite2 offers a dynamic schemaless approach that eliminates unnecessary data copying, optimizing system performance and efficiency. Built upon a contiguously stored B-tree structure, Lite2 enables efficient data lookup and modification without deserialization, thereby achieving zero-copy operations.
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Open AccessArticle
A New Computational Algorithm for Assessing Overdispersion and Zero-Inflation in Machine Learning Count Models with Python
by
Luiz Paulo Lopes Fávero, Alexandre Duarte and Helder Prado Santos
Computers 2024, 13(4), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040088 - 27 Mar 2024
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This article provides an overview of count data and count models, explores zero inflation, introduces likelihood ratio tests, and explains how the Vuong test can be used as a model selection criterion for assessing overdispersion. The motivation of this work was to create
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This article provides an overview of count data and count models, explores zero inflation, introduces likelihood ratio tests, and explains how the Vuong test can be used as a model selection criterion for assessing overdispersion. The motivation of this work was to create a Vuong test implementation from scratch using the Python programming language. This implementation supports our objective of enhancing the accessibility and applicability of the Vuong test in real-world scenarios, providing a valuable contribution to the academic community, since Python did not have an implementation of this statistical test.
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Open AccessArticle
Evaluation of the Effectiveness of National Promotion Strategies for the Improvement of Privacy and Security
by
Mauro Iacono and Michele Mastroianni
Computers 2024, 13(4), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040087 - 27 Mar 2024
Abstract
Problems related to privacy and security preservation are in the scope of the concerns of governments and policymakers because of their impact on fundamental rights. Users are called to act responsibly whenever they are potentially exposed to related risks, but governments and parliaments
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Problems related to privacy and security preservation are in the scope of the concerns of governments and policymakers because of their impact on fundamental rights. Users are called to act responsibly whenever they are potentially exposed to related risks, but governments and parliaments must be proactive in creating safer conditions and a more appropriate regulation to both guide users towards good practices and create a favoring environment which reduces exposure. In this paper, we propose a modeling framework to define and evaluate policies which identify and use appropriate levers to accomplish these tasks. We present a proof-of-concept which shows the viability of estimating in advance the effects of policies and policymakers’ initiatives by means of Influence Nets.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 23rd International Conference on Computational Science and Its Applications (ICCSA 2023))
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Open AccessArticle
Temporal-Logic-Based Testing Tool Architecture for Dual-Programming Model Systems
by
Salwa Saad, Etimad Fadel, Ohoud Alzamzami, Fathy Eassa and Ahmed M. Alghamdi
Computers 2024, 13(4), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/computers13040086 - 25 Mar 2024
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Today, various applications in different domains increasingly rely on high-performance computing (HPC) to accomplish computations swiftly. Integrating one or more programming models alongside the used programming language enhances system parallelism, thereby improving its performance. However, this integration can introduce runtime errors such as
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Today, various applications in different domains increasingly rely on high-performance computing (HPC) to accomplish computations swiftly. Integrating one or more programming models alongside the used programming language enhances system parallelism, thereby improving its performance. However, this integration can introduce runtime errors such as race conditions, deadlocks, or livelocks. Some of these errors may go undetected using conventional testing techniques, necessitating the exploration of additional methods for enhanced reliability. Formal methods, such as temporal logic, can be useful for detecting runtime errors since they have been widely used in real-time systems. Additionally, many software systems must adhere to temporal properties to ensure correct functionality. Temporal logics indeed serve as a formal frame that takes into account the temporal aspect when describing changes in elements or states over time. This paper proposes a temporal-logic-based testing tool utilizing instrumentation techniques designed for a dual-level programming model, namely, Message Passing Interface (MPI) and Open Multi-Processing (OpenMP), integrated with the C++ programming language. After a comprehensive study of temporal logic types, we found and proved that linear temporal logic is well suited as the foundation for our tool. Notably, while the tool is currently in development, our approach is poised to effectively address the highlighted examples of runtime errors by the proposed solution. This paper thoroughly explores various types and operators of temporal logic to inform the design of the testing tool based on temporal properties, aiming for a robust and reliable system.
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