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Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing

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A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Equids".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2023) | Viewed by 27026

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Peta Lee Hitchens

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Guest Editor

Equine Lameness and Imaging Centre, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
Interests: equine veterinary epidemiology

Dr. Ashleigh Morrice-West

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Guest Editor

Equine Lameness and Imaging Centre, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
Interests: equine veterinary epidemiology

Dr. Adelene Wong

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Equine Lameness and Imaging Centre, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
Interests: equine veterinary epidemiology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

It is critical that the horse racing industry addresses health, safety, and welfare concerns using evidence-based approaches, and continues working to maintain its social license to operate. The purpose of this Special Issue is therefore to provide a collection of research and discourse that improves conditions within the horse racing industry.

We invite original research and review articles aimed at addressing the improvement of health, safety, and welfare in the horse racing industry. This includes, but is not limited to, Thoroughbred, Quarter Horse, or Standardbred racing, conducted on the flat or over jumps. Papers may encompass research related to equine exercise physiology, musculoskeletal and cardiac and airway disorders, injury prevention, poor performance, equine behavior, equine welfare, ethical implications, or social license to operate. Because incidents involving the horse may also adversely affect their rider, research involving horse–rider interaction and their linkage are also welcome.

Dr. Peta Lee Hitchens
Dr. Ashleigh Morrice-West
Dr. Adelene Wong
Guest Editors

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Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Animals is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

horse welfare
equine welfare
equine behavior
horse racing
horse training
jockey
human–horse relationship
injury prevention
social license

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 362 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anxiety and Depression in British Horseracing Stud and Stable Staff Following Occupational Injury

by Emma Davies, Sophie Liddiard, Will J. McConn-Palfreyman, John K. Parker, Lorna J. Cameron and Jane M. Williams

Animals 2023, 13(21), 3337; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13213337 - 26 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1409

Abstract

Horseracing has identified several factors influencing staff wellbeing; however, the relationship between injury, anxiety, and depression is yet to be established. This study investigated anxiety and depression scores and their association to pain management, coping, and help-seeking behaviour in injured British horseracing staff. An online retrospective survey was completed by 175 participants, identifying injury prevalence, coping strategies, occupational risk factors, and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) scores. Analysis identified 65.14% (n = 114) of staff reported anxiety scores above the threshold (≥8) and 59.52% (n = 104) of staff reported depression scores ≥8. Median anxiety and depression scores were higher for staff who viewed their employer as unhelpful (anxiety p = 0.001; depression p = 0.020). Heightened anxiety and depression were associated with an increased likelihood to use pain medication to manage at work, including non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID’s), alcohol, nicotine, and prescription drugs (p < 0.05). Implications for staff wellbeing is evident; anxiety and depression risks are high following injury, which may influence help-seeking behaviour, perceived job security, and coping mechanisms. This paper suggests it is vital to continue to investigate poor mental health and injury in racing staff and the implications for equine welfare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

25 pages, 1615 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selected Acoustic Frequencies Have a Positive Impact on Behavioural and Physiological Welfare Indicators in Thoroughbred Racehorses

by Léa Gueguen, Séverine Henry, Maëlle Delbos, Alban Lemasson and Martine Hausberger

Animals 2023, 13(18), 2970; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13182970 - 20 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2095

Abstract

(1) Background: Since antiquity, it is considered that sounds influence human emotional states and health. Acoustic enrichment has also been proposed for domestic animals. However, in both humans and animals, effects vary according to the type of sound. Human studies suggest that frequencies, more than melodies, play a key role. Low and high frequencies, music tuning frequency and even EEG slow waves used for ‘neurofeedback’ produce effects. (2) Methods: We tested the possible impact of such pure frequencies on racehorses’ behavior and physiology. A commercial non-audible acoustic stimulus, composed of an array of the above-mentioned frequencies, was broadcasted twice daily and for three weeks to 12 thoroughbred horses in their home stall. (3) Results: The results show a decrease in stereotypic behaviors and other indicators such as yawning or vacuum chewing, an increase in the time spent in recumbent resting and foraging, and better hematological measures during and after the playback phase for 4 of the 10 physiological parameters measured. (4) Conclusions: These results open new lines of research on possible ways of alleviating the stress related to housing and training conditions in racehorses and of improving physical recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

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7 pages, 333 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Anomalous Incidence of Fatal Musculoskeletal Injury in North American 2-Year-Old Thoroughbred Racehorses in the Year 2020

by Euan D. Bennet and Tim D. H. Parkin

Animals 2023, 13(16), 2572; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13162572 - 9 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1040

Abstract

Racehorse training and racing schedules in many parts of the United States and Canada were interrupted or otherwise reduced during the first three to six months of 2020. This was an indirect consequence of mitigations to prevent the spread of the pandemic virus COVID-19. Data from the Equine Injury Database, a census-level survey of all race starts made in the USA and Canada, were used to analyse the incidence of fatalities in 2009–2022 among three age cohorts of racehorses within each year. There was a statistically significant increase in the incidence of musculoskeletal fatalities among 2-year-old Thoroughbreds in 2020, compared to the period 2009–2019. In 2021 and 2022, the training schedules of 2-year-old horses returned to pre-2020 levels, as did the incidence of fatalities. The delayed start to training for 2-year-old horses was associated with an increase in risk of fatal musculoskeletal injury for those horses during 2020, but the risk for the same horses in 2021—when they were 3 years old—was not significantly different to the risk for 3-year-olds in any other year. The increased risk of fatal musculoskeletal injury in 2020 was only found among horses that were 2 years old in 2020—horses aged 3 years or more in 2020 were not at increased risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

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17 pages, 548 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Associations between Medical Disorders and Racing Outcomes in Poorly Performing Standardbred Trotter Racehorses: A Retrospective Study

by Chiara Maria Lo Feudo, Luca Stucchi, Giovanni Stancari, Bianca Conturba, Chiara Bozzola, Enrica Zucca and Francesco Ferrucci

Animals 2023, 13(16), 2569; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13162569 - 9 Aug 2023

Viewed by 914

Abstract

Poor performance in racehorses is commonly associated with subclinical diseases. This study aims to evaluate the associations between medical disorders and racing results in Standardbred trotters. The clinical records of 248 poorly performing Standardbreds were retrospectively reviewed, and their racing results were extracted from an online database, concerning the periods 3 months before and 6 months after hospitalization and the entire lifetime. Generalized linear models were used to evaluate the effects of different disorders on racing outcomes. Airway neutrophilia was associated with limiting lifetime starts and wins pre- and post-hospitalization, while mastocytosis was associated with less wins in the post-hospitalization period. Therefore, lower airway inflammation showed both short- and long-term impacts on racing performance. Severe upper airway obstructions and gastric ulcers showed associations with less placings in the post-discharge period but no long-term influence on performance. The significance of exertional rhabdomyolysis was indeterminable, yet interference with the number of starts in the post-discharge period was reported and associated with lower total career earnings. Exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage and cardiac arrhythmias were not associated with worse racing outcomes: therefore, their role in poor performance remains unclear. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

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15 pages, 1503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hoof Expansion, Deformation, and Surface Strains Vary with Horseshoe Nail Positions

by Vanessa E. Dahl, Ellen R. Singer, Tanya C. Garcia, David A. Hawkins and Susan M. Stover

Animals 2023, 13(11), 1872; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111872 - 4 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1610

Abstract

Racehorses are susceptible to underrun heel hoof conformation. Racehorses are often shod with nails placed toward the heel. It is unknown if palmar nails restrict or alter hoof deformation in a manner that could promote the development of underrun heel conformation over time with repeated loading. To determine how the addition of palmar nails affects heel deformation during limb loading, hoof expansion and hoof wall deformations were quantified using rosette strain gauges and kinematic markers during in the vitro limb loading of cadaveric limbs that simulated midstance for walk, trot, and canter loads. Nail treatments used to attach a horseshoe to the hoof included: toe nails (T), toe and quarter nails (TQ), and toe, quarter, and heel nails (TQH). The effects of nail treatment on heel expansion and hoof wall deformations were assessed using repeated measures analysis of variance (p < 0.05). Nails placed palmar to the quarters of the hoof decreased heel expansion (p < 0.001). Heel nails resulted in the largest changes in hoof wall principal strain directions distally. The application of nails palmar to the hoof quarters alters hoof wall deformation during limb loading. The continued loading of the hoof with palmer nails could alter hoof conformation over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

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10 pages, 1220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Two Recommended Withholding Periods for Omeprazole and the Use of a Nutraceutical Supplement on Recurrence of Equine Gastric Ulcer Syndrome in Thoroughbred Racehorses

by Ran Shan, Catherine M. Steel and Ben Sykes

Animals 2023, 13(11), 1823; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111823 - 31 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4367

Abstract

The impact of recommended withholding periods (RWPs) for omeprazole on the recurrence of Equine Gastric Ulcer Syndrome (EGUS) is unknown. The study was designed to compare the effect of two RWPs on EGUS recurrence post-omeprazole treatment and to determine if a nutraceutical supplement would reduce EGUS recurrence when administrated during an RWP. The study was a blinded, randomized clinical trial. Part 1: Horses were allocated to an RWP0 or RWP2 and crossed over after 4-weeks. Horses received oral omeprazole once daily, except during the RWPs at the end of the treatment periods. Part 2: Horses received omeprazole for 21 days prior to an RWP2 during which they received a nutraceutical supplement. Gastroscopy was performed on Day 0 and pre- and post- RWP. Part 1: More horses were affected by Equine Squamous Gastric Disease (ESGD) after the ‘2-clear-days’ RWP than the ‘not on race-day’ RWP (p = 0.012). The prevalence of ESGD post-RWP for ‘2-clear-days’ did not differ from day 0 (p = 0.478). Part 2: The prevalence of ESGD post-RWP was lower than on Day 0 (p = 0.046). A difference in recurrence of ESGD was present between the two common RWPs. The implications of this on the welfare of Thoroughbred racehorses warrant further discussion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

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16 pages, 309 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Poor Association between Facial Expression and Mild Lameness in Thoroughbred Trot-Up Examinations

by Katrina A. Anderson, Ashleigh V. Morrice-West, Adelene S. M. Wong, Elizabeth A. Walmsley, Andrew D. Fisher, R. Chris Whitton and Peta L. Hitchens

Animals 2023, 13(11), 1727; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13111727 - 23 May 2023

Viewed by 1360

Abstract

Musculoskeletal injuries in racehorses are difficult to detect prior to catastrophic breakdown. Lameness is commonly attributed to orthopaedic pain in horses, therefore, subtle lameness may be a pre-clinical sign of injury and, if identified early, could allow for preventative intervention. Our objective was to determine if facial expressions could be used to detect mild lameness as an indicator of orthopaedic pain in ‘fit to race’ horses. The Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) and the facial expressions in ridden horses (FEReq), were used to score images (n = 380) of mildly lame (n = 21) and non-lame (n = 17) Thoroughbred horses by two independent observers. Using an Equinosis Lameness Locator^®, the lameness status of each horse was determined according to published thresholds [forelimb lameness (>|14.5 mm|) and hindlimb lameness (>|7.5 mm|)]. Inter and intraobserver reliability were assessed using two-way random-effects models. Univariable associations between lameness and facial expression parameters were identified using logistic and linear regression. Interobserver reliability was moderate (κ 0.45; 95% CI 0.36, 0.55). Horses with moderate mouth strain (HGS) and tense and extended upper lip (FEReq) were less likely to be lame (p = 0.042 and p = 0.027, respectively). Exposed sclera was associated with lameness (p = 0.045). Higher orbital tightening (HGS) scores were associated with a lower degree of maximum head amplitude (HDmax) lameness (p = 0.044). Tension and moderate tension above the eye, for the HGS and FEReq scores, were associated with increasing amplitude of HDmax (p = 0.048 and p = 0.034, respectively). Inconsistent associations between lameness status and HGS and FEReq scores may limit the potential use of the facial expression for the prediction of mild orthopaedic pain during pre-race lameness examinations. More objective parameters associated with mild orthopaedic pain should be explored. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

12 pages, 613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Factors for Epistaxis in Thoroughbred Flat Races in Japan (2001–2020)

by Fumi Sugiyama, Yuji Takahashi, Motoi Nomura, Yusaku Ebisuda, Kazutaka Mukai and Toshinobu Yoshida

Animals 2023, 13(8), 1348; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13081348 - 14 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1549

Abstract

We investigated the risk factors for epistaxis in Japanese flat races over a 20-year period. The veterinary records of horses identified as having epistaxis by endoscopy on the race day, and the official racing records of all flat races from April to September between 2001 and 2020, were reviewed. The racecourses (n = 10), surface type, surface condition, race class, race distance, race year, sex, age, two training centers, ambient temperature, and body weight on race days were assessed using multivariable logistic regression (p < 0.05). Of 475,709 race starts, 616 (1.30 cases per 1000 starts; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.20–1.40) included an epistaxis event. Nine variables were significantly associated with epistaxis. Seven of the variables have been reported in previous studies: lower ambient temperature, soft surface conditions, shorter racing distances (≤1400 m), increasing age, females and geldings compared to males, training center, and race year. However, two novel variables were identified as significantly associated with epistaxis, increasing body weight per 20 kg (p < 0.001, odds ratio [OR], 1.33; 95% CI, 1.25–1.41) and the racecourses that the horses were running at (p < 0.001, especially Sapporo [OR; 4.74, 95% CI, 3.07–7.31], Hakodate [OR, 4.66; 95% CI, 3.05–7.11], and Kokura [OR, 4.14; 95% CI, 2.65–6.48] compared to the reference racecourse [Kyoto]). These results can facilitate developing interventions to reduce epistaxis in flat racing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

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12 pages, 1495 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Personality-Related Candidate Genes in Thoroughbred Racehorses Using a Bioinformatics-Based Approach Involving Functionally Annotated Human Genes

by Tamu Yokomori, Aoi Ohnuma, Teruaki Tozaki, Takao Segawa and Takuya Itou

Animals 2023, 13(4), 769; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040769 - 20 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2256

Abstract

Considering the personality traits of racehorses (e.g., flightiness, anxiety, and affability) is considered essential to improve training efficiency and decrease accident frequency, especially when retraining for a second career that may involve contact with inexperienced personnel after retiring from racing. Studies on human personality-related genes are frequently conducted; however, such studies are rare in horses because a consistent methodology for personality evaluation is lacking. Using the recently published whole genome variant database of 101 Thoroughbred horses, we compared horse genes orthologous to human genes related to the Big Five personality traits, and identified 18 personality-related candidate genes in horses. These genes include 55 variants that involve non-synonymous substitutions that highly impact the encoded protein. Moreover, we evaluated the allele frequencies and functional impact on the proteins in terms of the difference in molecular weights and hydrophobicity levels between reference and altered amino acids. We identified 15 newly discovered genes that may affect equine personality, but their associations with personality are still unclear. Although more studies are required to compare genetic and behavioral information to validate this approach, it may be useful under limited conditions for personality evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

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12 pages, 248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Reporting of Racehorse Fatalities in New Zealand Thoroughbred Flat Racing in the 2011/12–2021/22 Seasons

by Michaela J. Gibson, Kylie A. Legg, Erica K. Gee and Chris W. Rogers

Animals 2023, 13(4), 612; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040612 - 9 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1595

Abstract

Race day fatalities as a consequence of catastrophic musculoskeletal injury and cardiac failure are both a welfare concern and provide a challenge for the social perceptions of equine welfare within the racing industry. To reduce race day fatalities, the risk factors under New Zealand racing conditions need to be identified. The aim of this study was to examine race and horse-level risk factors for fatalities in New Zealand Thoroughbred flat racing using retrospective race day data from the 2011/12–2021/22 racing seasons. Horse and race-level factors associated with a suspected cardiac failure and fatal fracture were identified by merging fatality data with the master race dataset for the corresponding seasons. Most fatalities were associated with fatal fracture (0.4 per 1000 starts, 95% CI 0.4–0.5). Horses which raced over distances > 1600 m were 1.7 times (95% CI 1.2–2.5) more likely to sustain a fatal fracture than horses racing ≤ 1600 m. Male horses and firmer track conditions were also associated with an increase in the risk of fatal fracture. Horses aged 5 years and older were 2.1 (95% CI 1.1–4.6) times more likely to suffer a suspected cardiac failure than younger horses. Changes in the industry reporting system improved the level of detail provided for fatalities, enabling the identification of specific risk factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

14 pages, 591 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Race-Level Reporting of Incidents Using an Online System during Three Seasons (2019/2020–2021/2022) of Thoroughbred Flat Racing in New Zealand

by Michaela J. Gibson, Kylie A. Legg, Erica K. Gee and Chris W. Rogers

Animals 2022, 12(21), 3028; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12213028 - 3 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1534

Abstract

In the 2019/20 Thoroughbred racing season, the paper-based reporting process of stipendiary steward reports was upgraded to an online system (‘Infohorse database’) to allow for the rapid entry of precise event and injury data. The objectives of this study were to describe the incident and non-incident examinations during the 2019/20, 2020/21, and 2021/22 Thoroughbred flat racing seasons in New Zealand and describe the primary injury and reporting outcomes. The introduction of the online system was associated with fewer miscoding events with horse identification (0.1%). An improvement in the definition and prompts in reporting within the online system compared with the previous paper-based system resulted in a greater frequency of non-incident examinations being undertaken. The increased frequency of reporting the clinical outcome, ‘no observable abnormalities detected’ (NOAD), demonstrates the role of stipendiary stewards to carry out routine screening. The frequency of most clinical findings, such as musculoskeletal fractures (0.5 per 1000 starts, 95% CI = 0.3–0.6), remained similar compared to previously reported data using the paper-based system. The online system provided a more structured dataset compared with the paper-based system, making it a useful tool for the monitoring of incidents, injuries, and potential risk factors within Thoroughbred racing in New Zealand. Therefore, evidence-based changes to the management and structure of racing can be undertaken to ensure the industry meets its duty of care for racehorse and jockey welfare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

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17 pages, 598 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological Demands and Muscle Activity of Jockeys in Trial and Race Riding

by Kylie Legg, Darryl Cochrane, Erica Gee, Paul Macdermid and Chris Rogers

Animals 2022, 12(18), 2351; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12182351 - 8 Sep 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3481

Abstract

Physiological parameters and muscle activity of jockeys may affect their fall and injury risk, performance, and career longevity, as well as the performance and welfare of the horses they ride. Therefore, this study aimed to quantify the physiological demands, body displacement, and electromyographic (EMG) activity of twelve jockeys riding 52 trials and 16 professional races. The jockeys were instrumented with heart rate (HR) monitors, accelerometers, and integrated EMG clothing (recording eight muscle groups: quadriceps, hamstrings, gluteal, erector spinae/lower back, abdominal external obliques, abdominal, trapezial and pectoral) which recorded continuously whilst riding. During race day, jockeys rode an average of 5 ± 4 trials and 4 ± 2 races over 2–2.5 h. The trials represented lower intensity cardiovascular demand (~81% HRmax) and Training Impulse (TRIMP) scores (4.4 ± 1.8) than races at maximal intensity effort (~94% HRmax, 7.2 ± 1.8 TRIMP, p < 0.05). Jockey head displacement was similar in trials (5.4 ± 2.1 cm) and races (5.6 ± 2.2 cm, p > 0.05), with more vertical (6.7 ± 2.7 cm) and less medio/lateral (2.3 ± 0.7 cm) and fore/aft (3.7 ± 1.6 cm) displacement for jockeys riding in trials than races (5.5 ± 2.3, 2.8 ± 1.0, 5.6 ± 2.5 cm, p < 0.05). Jockeys in races adopted a lower crouched posture, with their centre of mass (COM) shifted anteriorly, using greater hamstring activation and less upper arm muscle activation than in trials. The differences in riding posture and physiological demands on jockeys riding in a race rather than a trial, highlight the requirement for an off-horse race-specific training programme to improve jockey fitness and performance. Greater jockey stability and coordination will have mutual benefits for both horse welfare and performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

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Review

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18 pages, 1060 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Scoping Review of Non-Structural Airway Disease as a Cause of Poor Performance in Racehorses

by Ann Cullinane, Marie Garvey, Cathal Walsh, James Gibbons and Alan Creighton

Animals 2023, 13(3), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13030429 - 27 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1449

Abstract

The association between poor performance and respiratory disease in Thoroughbred racehorses that do not have a structural abnormality of the respiratory tract, is often based on anecdotal evidence. The objective of this scoping review was to examine the scientific evidence for such associations. Publications were selected based on a search of three databases (PubMed, Scopus, and CAB Direct), in English and without date restriction, followed by a screening process to exclude non-relevant papers, duplicates, and reviews. This process identified 996 publications of which 20 were analysed using the Quality in Prognosis Studies (QUIPS) tool. The results indicated that the evidence supporting the relationship between proposed diagnostic indicators and poor performance is variable. There is a need for better quality evidence. In particular, there are conflicting reports relating to the impact of equine asthma and EIPH on athletic performance. Furthermore, a lack of standardisation in the measurement of racehorse performance makes it difficult to compare findings from different studies. The industry would benefit from high-level guidance concerning the design of controlled performance studies in Thoroughbred racehorses to collect comprehensive data and facilitate targeted interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health, Safety, and Welfare in Horse Racing)

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