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Polymers

Polymers is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of polymer science published semimonthly online by MDPI. Belgian Polymer Group (BPG), European Colloid & Interface Society (ECIS), National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM) and North American Thermal Analysis Society (NATAS) are affiliated with Polymers and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, PubMed, PMC, FSTA, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Polymer Science) / CiteScore - Q1 (General Chemistry )
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 14 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in MDPI journals, in appreciation of the work.
Testimonials: See what our authors and editors say about Polymers.
Journal Cluster of Polymer and Macromolecular Science: Polymers, Gels, Polysaccharides, Textiles, Macromol, Microplastics and Adhesives.

Impact Factor: 4.9 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 5.2 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4360

Latest Articles

16 pages, 2447 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Stability of Propellants Modified with Eco-Friendly Plasticizers

by Katarzyna Cieślak, Monika Izabella Wycech and Waldemar Tomaszewski

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3033; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223033 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

The growing importance of sustainable technologies and environmental safety is promoting the implementation of green chemistry principles in the field of energetic materials. Traditionally, nitrocellulose-based propellants are plasticized with dibutyl phthalate (DBP), which is classified as a hazardous substance due to its toxicity [...] Read more.

The growing importance of sustainable technologies and environmental safety is promoting the implementation of green chemistry principles in the field of energetic materials. Traditionally, nitrocellulose-based propellants are plasticized with dibutyl phthalate (DBP), which is classified as a hazardous substance due to its toxicity and migration during storage. In this work, triethyl 2-acetylcitrate (ATEC) and tributyl 2-acetylcitrate (ATBC) were investigated as biodegradable and non-toxic alternatives to DBP. The objective of this study was to evaluate the thermal and chemical stability, physicochemical properties, and incorporation efficiency of these eco-friendly plasticizers in regard to propellants prepared from nitrocellulose of different origins and with nitrogen contents. The stability of the obtained propellants was assessed based on accelerated aging tests conducted in accordance with NATO STANAG 4582 and AOP-48 procedures. The results showed that both the ATEC- and ATBC-modified propellants meet the stability requirements corresponding to at least ten years of storage at 25 °C. The modified propellants showed slightly lower heats of combustion. Both plasticizers were effectively integrated into the nitrocellulose matrix without compromising density or stability. This study confirms that citric-acid-based plasticizers are promising green alternatives to conventional phthalates, offering improved environmental compatibility while maintaining the required performance and safety of nitrocellulose propellants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Circular and Green Sustainable Polymer Science)

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12 pages, 1282 KB

Open AccessArticle

Disposable Foamed Silicone Composite Actuator Powered by Sublimation

by Igor Bezsudnov, Alina Khmelnitskaia, Aleksandra Kalinina and Sergey Ponomarenko

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3032; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223032 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

Soft actuators are widely explored as movers in various devices, human–machine interfaces, for medical purposes and other biomedical applications. Among them are soft actuators based on a foamed silicone matrix with the working liquid (WL) captured in its pores that undergo the liquid–gas [...] Read more.

Soft actuators are widely explored as movers in various devices, human–machine interfaces, for medical purposes and other biomedical applications. Among them are soft actuators based on a foamed silicone matrix with the working liquid (WL) captured in its pores that undergo the liquid–gas phase transition. For the first time, to gain the actuation strain of such composites, we added, to the WL, a substance that sublimates during the composite actuation. C1–C3 alcohols were tested as WLs, while the sublimation substance (SS) used was benzoic acid dissolved in the WL. It was found that the rejuvenation procedure is able to fill the composite pores with WL + SS solution. The effect of benzoic acid addition was revealed using the two-stage heating mode. The sublimation substance effectively extends the composite strain for methanol and ethanol as WL for about 20%. For C3 propanols, the strain is left nearly unchanged. In the open-air conditions, the high diffusion of WL + SS in silicone allows only a single actuation that makes it a disposable actuator, i.e., a kind of safety switch is proposed. The results obtained in this work pave the way to future, powerful multipurpose “soft safeties” appliances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Composites: Manufacturing, Processing and Applications)

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24 pages, 5078 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Study on Elastic Properties of Natural Fibres in Multi-Hybrid Composites

by Mughees Shahid, Gediminas Monastyreckis and Daiva Zeleniakiene

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3031; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223031 (registering DOI) - 15 Nov 2025

This study investigates the elastic properties of bio-epoxy composites reinforced with natural fibres (flax, hemp) and synthetic fibres (S-glass), with particular focus on the effect of the fibre volume fraction (VF) ranging from 10% to 70%. Three-dimensional representative volume element (RVE) models were [...] Read more.

This study investigates the elastic properties of bio-epoxy composites reinforced with natural fibres (flax, hemp) and synthetic fibres (S-glass), with particular focus on the effect of the fibre volume fraction (VF) ranging from 10% to 70%. Three-dimensional representative volume element (RVE) models were developed for single-fibre, hybrid, and multi-fibre systems. The mean-field homogenisation (MF) approach, based on the Mori–Tanaka scheme, and finite element analysis (FEA) with periodic boundary conditions were employed to predict the effective elastic properties, including longitudinal, transverse, and shear moduli, as well as Poisson’s ratio. These numerical predictions were validated against analytical models, including the rule of mixtures, Chamis, and composite cylinder assemblage (CCA) methods. The results demonstrate that increasing the VF enhances longitudinal, transverse, and shear moduli while reducing Poisson’s ratio in natural fibre composites. The good agreement between numerical, semi-analytical, and analytical methods validates the 3D RVE models as useful tools for predicting the properties of multi-hybrid natural fibre composites, supporting their design for lightweight structural applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Theoretical and Computational Polymers Science: Physics, Chemistry and Biology—2nd Edition)

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21 pages, 2732 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ionic Conductive Hydrogels with Choline Salt for Potential Use in Electrochemical Capacitors

by Jan Malczak, Wiktoria Żyła, Piotr Gajewski, Katarzyna Szcześniak, Łukasz Popenda and Agnieszka Marcinkowska

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3030; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223030 - 14 Nov 2025

Choline salts represent sustainable and safe electrolyte systems. In this study, an aqueous 1 M choline nitrate solution was employed to prepare hydrogel polymer electrolytes (HPE) via in situ photopolymerization. To enhance compatibility between the electrolyte and polymer matrix, choline methacrylate was synthesized [...] Read more.

Choline salts represent sustainable and safe electrolyte systems. In this study, an aqueous 1 M choline nitrate solution was employed to prepare hydrogel polymer electrolytes (HPE) via in situ photopolymerization. To enhance compatibility between the electrolyte and polymer matrix, choline methacrylate was synthesized and used as a functional monomer alongside HEMA and PEGDA. The photocurable formulation contained 70 wt.% electrolyte and 30 wt.% monomer mixture. Subsequent electrolyte uptake increased the electrolyte fraction in the HPE to 87 wt.%. The use of choline methacrylate enabled the formation of transparent HPE with favorable mechanical performance, showing puncture resistance of 0.33 N and 0.28 N at elongations of 7.9 mm and 4.4 mm for samples with 70 and 87 wt.% electrolyte, respectively. High ionic conductivity was achieved, reaching ~18 mS/cm and ~34 mS/cm for HPE with 70 and 87 wt.% electrolyte. Finally, a capacitor assembled with HPE containing 87 wt.% electrolyte demonstrated good operational parameters, confirming the applicability of this system in energy storage devices. This work highlights the potential of choline-based electrolytes and polymerizable choline derivatives as functional components for the design of efficient, safe, and environmentally friendly gel polymer electrolytes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Active Polymeric Materials for Electrochemical Applications)

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20 pages, 1313 KB

Open AccessArticle

Drop Hammer Impact Ignition Experiment and Effect of Additives on Energy Release Characteristics of PTFE-Based Reactive Materials

by Junming Yuan, Jiaying Gu, Zhe Zhai, Jinying Wang, Peijiang Han, Jiangqi Linghu and Yang Liu

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3029; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223029 - 14 Nov 2025

To solve the problem of low energy release efficiency of fluoropolymer-based reactive materials, four PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene) -based reactive structural materials with different contents were prepared by adding traditional energetic materials (RDX, 1,3,5-Trinitrohexahydro-1,3,5-triazine) and alloy metals (aluminum magnesium, aluminum magnesium zinc). In addition, in [...] Read more.

To solve the problem of low energy release efficiency of fluoropolymer-based reactive materials, four PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene) -based reactive structural materials with different contents were prepared by adding traditional energetic materials (RDX, 1,3,5-Trinitrohexahydro-1,3,5-triazine) and alloy metals (aluminum magnesium, aluminum magnesium zinc). In addition, in order to reduce the high cost of the existing high-speed impact energy release testing device, the formulation optimization of PTFE-based aluminum alloy reactive material was efficiently carried out using a small-scale drop hammer impact test in this paper. The self-designed impact energy release testing device was established for the overpressure measurement of PTFE-based aluminum alloy reactive materials. The impact response processes of PTFE-based aluminum alloy reactive material were recorded with high-speed photography. The energy release characteristics were quantified using overpressure measurements. Based on the chemical reaction properties and microstructural characterization of the PTFE-based reactive materials, the ignition mechanism of aluminum alloy reactive materials was analyzed under drop hammer impact load. The results show that the quantitative characterization of the overpressure changes of reactive materials in a quasi-enclosed space before and after reaction can reflect their energy release efficiency under low-velocity impact by using the drop hammer impact energy release testing device. The order of impact response overpressure values for four PTFE-based reactive materials has been conducted. The aluminum alloy reactive material containing RDX explosive has the highest overpressure value and the highest energy release efficiency in terms of drop hammer impact response. Based on the ignition mechanism and energy release characteristics of these four PTFE-based reactive materials, it was found that the addition of alloy metal powder can reduce impact sensitivity, but when activated, it can effectively enhance the damage effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Energy-Density Polymer-Based Materials)

5 pages, 168 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Polysaccharide-Based Materials: Developments and Properties

by Andrés Gerardo Salvay

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3028; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223028 - 14 Nov 2025

The growing concern for environmental sustainability and the urgent demand to reduce dependence on non-renewable resources have placed bio-based materials at the centre of materials science innovation [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polysaccharide-Based Materials: Developments and Properties)

21 pages, 1295 KB

Open AccessArticle

Incorporation of Natural Biostimulants in Biodegradable Mulch Films for Agricultural Applications: Ecotoxicological Evaluation

by Chelo Escrig Rondán, Celia Sevilla Gil, Pablo Sanz Fernández, Juan Francisco Ferrer Crespo and Cristina Furió Sanz

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3027; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223027 - 14 Nov 2025

This study deals with the incorporation of biostimulants of natural origin in a biodegradable polymeric matrix, with the aim of developing mulch films that, when degraded in the soil, release bioactive compounds that improve soil quality and favor the agronomic growth of crops. [...] Read more.

This study deals with the incorporation of biostimulants of natural origin in a biodegradable polymeric matrix, with the aim of developing mulch films that, when degraded in the soil, release bioactive compounds that improve soil quality and favor the agronomic growth of crops. Three types of commercial biostimulants were used: one based on seaweed extract, one on lignosulfonates, and one on plant-derived essential amino acids. To ensure the thermal stability of the biostimulant compounds during processing, thermogravimetric analyses (TGAs) were carried out, and a methodology based on the adsorption of the biostimulants onto porous substrates was developed, enabling their effective incorporation into the polymeric matrix. The formulations obtained have been processed by blown film extrusion at a pilot scale. In addition, the presence of film residues in soil was analyzed by pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS). The results indicate that the proposed methodology supports the integrity of the biostimulants in the films obtained. After the incubation period studied, complete degradation of the biopolymer and the absence of film residues in the soil were confirmed. Furthermore, it was confirmed that this final product had no adverse effects on organisms that were representative of the two end-of-life scenarios, with the exception of the film functionalized with the commercial biostimulant based on seaweed extract, which showed a negative effect on terrestrial higher plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Progress in Biodegradable Polymeric Materials)

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14 pages, 2588 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Drying Methods on the Morphological and Functional Properties of Cellulose Ester Films

by Tanuj Kattamanchi, Heikko Kallakas, Elvira Tarasova, Percy Festus Alao, Tiit Kaljuvee, Arvo Mere, Atanas Katerski, Rünno Lõhmus, Andres Krumme and Jaan Kers

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3026; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223026 - 14 Nov 2025

This study presents the synthesis and characterisation of cellulose long chain fatty acid ester films using a novel distillable ionic liquid (IL), 5-methyl-1,5,7-triaza-bicyclo-[4.3.0] non-6-enium acetate [mTBNH][OAc] in combination with DMSO as a cosolvent. The cellulose esters cellulose diacetate (CDA), cellulose laurate (CL), and [...] Read more.

This study presents the synthesis and characterisation of cellulose long chain fatty acid ester films using a novel distillable ionic liquid (IL), 5-methyl-1,5,7-triaza-bicyclo-[4.3.0] non-6-enium acetate [mTBNH][OAc] in combination with DMSO as a cosolvent. The cellulose esters cellulose diacetate (CDA), cellulose laurate (CL), and cellulose palmitate (CP) were fabricated through an evaporation-induced phase separation method (EIPS) and dried under two conditions: conventional oven drying (RO) and vacuum oven drying (VO). The influence of drying conditions on the structural, thermal, and surface properties of the films was evaluated using XRD, TGA, SEM, AFM, and contact angle measurement techniques. XRD confirmed an amorphous structure in all films, with no significant effect on the drying conditions. TGA revealed consistent thermal degradation profiles across all samples, with ester group decomposition accruing between 140 and 250 °C and main cellulose backbone degradation near 350 °C. The SEM cross-section showed a uniform film, devoid of cavities and layered structures. AFM analysis demonstrated that VO-dried films had smoother surfaces compared to RO-dried films, correlating with increased contact angles and enhanced hydrophobicity. A strong inverse relationship between surface roughness and hydrophobicity was observed, particularly in VO-dried samples, although this was not statistically significant due to data variability. Overall, the drying method had minimal impact on the internal structure and thermal stability; it significantly influenced surface morphology and wettability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Preparation, Properties and Application of Polyurethane, Cellulose and Their Composites (3rd Edition))

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17 pages, 2415 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Monitoring Method of Polymer Injection Molding Product Quality Based on Operating Condition Drift Detection and Incremental Learning

by Guancheng Shen, Sihong Li, Yun Zhang, Huamin Zhou and Maoyuan Li

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3025; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223025 - 14 Nov 2025

Prediction models for polymer injection molding quality often degrade due to shifts in operating conditions caused by variations in melting temperature, cooling efficiency, or machine conditions. To address this challenge, this study proposes a drift-aware dynamic quality-monitoring framework that integrates hybrid-feature autoencoder (HFAE) [...] Read more.

Prediction models for polymer injection molding quality often degrade due to shifts in operating conditions caused by variations in melting temperature, cooling efficiency, or machine conditions. To address this challenge, this study proposes a drift-aware dynamic quality-monitoring framework that integrates hybrid-feature autoencoder (HFAE) drift detection, sliding-window reconstruction error analysis, and a mixed-feature artificial neural network (ANN) for online quality prediction. First, shifts in processing parameters are rigorously quantified to uncover continuous drifts in both input and conditional output distributions. A HFAE monitors reconstruction errors within a sliding window to promptly detect anomalous deviations. Once the drift index exceeds a predefined threshold, the system automatically triggers a drift-event response, including the collection and labeling of a small batch of new samples. In benchmark tests, this adaptive scheme outperforms static models, achieving a 35.4% increase in overall accuracy. After two incremental updates, the root-mean-squared error decreases by 42.3% across different production intervals. The anomaly detection rate falls from 0.86 to 0.09, effectively narrowing the distribution gap between training and testing sets. By tightly coupling drift detection with online model adaptation, the proposed method not only maintains high-fidelity quality predictions under dynamically evolving injection molding conditions but also demonstrates practical relevance for large-scale industrial production, enabling reduced rework, improved process stability, and lower sampling frequency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)

24 pages, 8615 KB

Open AccessArticle

Xylitol Modification of Electrospun Polymer Scaffolds: Impact on Physicochemical and Antibacterial Properties

by Francesco Boschetto, Matteo Zanocco, Kaeko Kamei, Huaizhong Xu and Elia Marin

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3024; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223024 - 14 Nov 2025

Electrospun fibrous scaffolds based on cellulose acetate (CA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) are versatile materials with applications spanning diverse fields, but in their pristine form, they typically lack significant inherent antibacterial properties. To address this limitation and expand their utility, [...] Read more.

Electrospun fibrous scaffolds based on cellulose acetate (CA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) are versatile materials with applications spanning diverse fields, but in their pristine form, they typically lack significant inherent antibacterial properties. To address this limitation and expand their utility, this study explored the incorporation of xylitol, a natural antibacterial sugar alcohol, into these polymer matrices to enhance their physicochemical and antimicrobial properties. Electrospinning was employed to fabricate pristine and xylitol-loaded scaffolds with varying xylitol concentrations. Morphological analysis revealed polymer-dependent changes in fiber diameter and porosity. Mechanical testing assessed the impact of xylitol on tensile properties, while thermal analysis investigated alterations in melting temperature and crystallinity. The antibacterial efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was evaluated using WST assay and live/dead staining. Notably, xylitol significantly enhanced the antibacterial activity against both bacterial species, with a more pronounced and rapid effect observed against S. aureus. The tailored scaffold properties and imparted antimicrobial characteristics highlight the potential of these xylitol-modified electrospun materials: they are easily produced, low-cost, and appropriate for a range of applications (dental applications, filters, masks, wound dressing, and packaging) where preventing bacterial contamination is crucial. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)

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15 pages, 1467 KB

Open AccessArticle

Wood Bio-Adhesives Made by Polymerizing Oxidized Starch with Deep Eutectic Solvent-Modified Lignin

by Hamed Younesi-Kordkheili and Antonio Pizzi

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3023; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223023 - 14 Nov 2025

In the present work, a new bio-sourced adhesive system based on deep eutectic solvent-modified lignin and oxidized starch (OSTL) resin is presented. For this purpose, unmodified and choline chloride–Zinc chloride (ChCl–ZnCl₂) deep eutectic solvent modified lignin at different contents (10%, 20%, [...] Read more.

In the present work, a new bio-sourced adhesive system based on deep eutectic solvent-modified lignin and oxidized starch (OSTL) resin is presented. For this purpose, unmodified and choline chloride–Zinc chloride (ChCl–ZnCl₂) deep eutectic solvent modified lignin at different contents (10%, 20%, and 30%) were used to prepare the OSTL resin. Ammonium persulfate (APS) was the oxidizer employed for the oxidation of starch, and urea was used as a low cost and effective crosslinker agent in the OSTL resin. FTIR analysis indicated that the content of carboxyl and carbonyl groups changed after the curing of the OSTL resin compared to oxidized starch (OST). DSC analysis indicated that the curing temperature of the OSTL resin containing DES-modified lignin was lower than that for unmodified lignin. Also, greater dimensional stability and mechanical strength could be achieved by increasing the amount of DES-treated lignin in the OSTL wood adhesive from 10 to 30 wt%. Based on the findings of this research, the physical and mechanical properties of the particleboard panels bonded with this type of bio-adhesive were acceptable according to the relevant standards. Additionally, urea can thus be used as a good cross-linker, not only to crosslink just OST, but also to connect DES-modified lignin and oxidized starch molecules. Under the conditions used, particleboards bonded with an oxidized starch–urea–pristine lignin adhesive presented decreasing internal bond (IB) strength with an increasing proportion of lignin. Conversely, when the same adhesive using DES-modified lignin was used, the internal bond (IB) strength improved with the increasing proportion of DES-modified lignin. At 30% proportions of lignin, the oxidized starch–urea–DES-modified lignin presented a 27% improvement in strength. Finally, it can be noted that this work brings a new insight to the development and application of lignin-based bio-adhesives to bond wood-based panels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Circular and Green Sustainable Polymer Science)

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20 pages, 4913 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biorenewable FDCA-Based Alkyd Resins for More Sustainable Wood Coatings

by Victor Klushin, Ivan Zubkov, Dmitry Petrenko, Alina Petrenko, Tatyana Yurieva, Tatyana Belichenko, Aleksey Yatsenko, Yash Kataria and Anna Ulyankina

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3022; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223022 - 14 Nov 2025

Alkyd resins (ARs) represent a significant development in synthetic polymers, being among the oldest ones and playing a crucial role in numerous applications, especially within the coating sector. The trend is moving towards replacing non-renewable resources in the production of ARs with bio-based [...] Read more.

Alkyd resins (ARs) represent a significant development in synthetic polymers, being among the oldest ones and playing a crucial role in numerous applications, especially within the coating sector. The trend is moving towards replacing non-renewable resources in the production of ARs with bio-based alternatives, with the goal of creating more sustainable binder materials as part of the transition to a bioeconomy. 2,5-Furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) serves as a promising biomass-derived “building block” to replace non-renewable petroleum-derived aromatic diacids and anhydrides in AR synthesis. Various vegetable oils, including sunflower seed (SFO) and linseed oils (LSO), were utilized along with pentaerythritol (P) and glycerol (G) as polyols. FTIR and ¹H NMR spectroscopies were conducted for the verification of alkyd structures. The synthesized ARs were assessed for their physico-chemical properties, including acid value, hydroxyl value, color, density, and viscosity. The performance of the resulting alkyd coatings, which are crucial for their commercial applications, was examined. Key factors such as drying time, hardness, adhesion, wettability, chemical and corrosion resistance, and UV stability were analyzed. All synthesized FDCA-based alkyd coatings demonstrate outstanding adhesion, good thermal stability up to 220 °C, and barrier properties for steel with |Z|_0.02Hz ~10⁶–10⁷ Ohm cm⁻², which render them suitable for the processing requirements of indoor coating applications. The higher temperature at 50% mass loss (T₅₀) for SFO-P (397 °C) and LSO-P (413 °C) as compared to SFO-G (380 °C) and LSO-G (394 °C) indicated greater resistance to thermal breakdown when pentaerythritol was used as a polyol. Replacing glycerol with pentaerythritol in FDCA-based ARs resulted in a viscosity increase of 1.2–2.4 times and an enhancement in hardness from 2H to 3H. FDCA-based ARs exhibited decreased tack-free time, enhanced thermomechanical properties, and similar hardness as compared to phthalic anhydride-based ARs, underscoring the potential of FDCA as a sustainable alternative to phthalic anhydride in the formulation of ARs, integrating a greater proportion of renewable components for wood coating applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Polymeric Coatings and Adhesive Technology, 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 2609 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Diagnostic Methods for Gas Generation Due to Degradation of Cable PVC Materials Under Electrical and Thermal Stress

by Peng Zhang, Xingwang Huang, Jingang Su, Zhen Liu, Xianhai Pang, Zihao Wang and Yidong Chen

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3021; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223021 - 13 Nov 2025

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), owing to its excellent electrical properties and low cost, is widely applied in the inner insulation and outer sheath of cables. To achieve early fault warning based on characteristic gases, this study integrates experimental testing with molecular simulations to systematically [...] Read more.

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), owing to its excellent electrical properties and low cost, is widely applied in the inner insulation and outer sheath of cables. To achieve early fault warning based on characteristic gases, this study integrates experimental testing with molecular simulations to systematically reveal the decomposition and gas generation characteristics of different PVC layers under electrical and thermal stresses. The results indicate that inner-layer PVC under electrical stress predominantly generates small-molecule olefins and halogenated hydrocarbons, while outer-layer PVC during thermal decomposition mainly produces hydrogen chloride, alkanes, and fragments of plasticizers. The surrounding atmosphere significantly regulates the gas generation pathways: air promotes the formation of CO₂ and H₂O, whereas electrical discharges accelerate the release of unsaturated hydrocarbons such as acetylene. By employing TG-FTIR, ReaxFF molecular dynamics, and DFT spectral calculations, a normalized infrared spectral library covering typical products was established and combined with the non-negative least squares method to realize quantitative deconvolution of mixed gases. Ultimately, a diagnostic system was constructed based on the concentration ratios of characteristic gases, which can effectively distinguish the failure modes of inner and outer PVC layers as well as different stress types. This provides a feasible approach for early detection of cable faults and supports intelligent maintenance strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Composites for Electrical Insulation Applications)

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29 pages, 6467 KB

Open AccessArticle

Shear Performance and Numerical Simulation of Adhesively Bonded Joints in Multi-Jet Fusion 3D-Printed Polyamide Components

by Frantisek Sedlacek, Martin Stejskal, Nikola Bednarova and Ondrej Spacek

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3020; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223020 - 13 Nov 2025

Additive manufacturing technologies are no longer limited to rapid prototyping but are increasingly used for low-volume production of functional end-use components. Among advanced AM techniques, HP Multi-Jet Fusion (MJF) stands out for its high precision and efficiency. Polyamides, thanks to their balanced mechanical [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing technologies are no longer limited to rapid prototyping but are increasingly used for low-volume production of functional end-use components. Among advanced AM techniques, HP Multi-Jet Fusion (MJF) stands out for its high precision and efficiency. Polyamides, thanks to their balanced mechanical and thermal properties, are commonly used as building materials in this technology. However, these materials are notoriously difficult to bond with conventional adhesives. This study investigates the shear strength of bonded joints made from two frequently used MJF materials—PA12 and glass-bead-filled PA12—using four different industrial adhesives. Experimental procedures were conducted according to ASTM standards. Specimens for single-lap-shear tests were fabricated on an HP MJF 4200 series printer, bonded using a custom jig, and tested on a Zwick-Roell Z250 electro-mechanical testing machine. Surface roughness of the adherends was measured with a 3D optical microscope to assess its influence on bonding performance. The polyurethane-based adhesive (3M Scotch-Weld DP620NS) demonstrated superior performance with maximum shear strengths of 5.0 ± 0.35 MPa for PA12 and 4.4 ± 0.03 MPa for PA12GB, representing 30% and 17% higher strength, respectively, compared to epoxy-based alternatives. The hybrid cyanoacrylate–epoxy adhesive (Loctite HY4090) was the only system showing improved performance with glass-bead-reinforced substrate (16.5% increase from PA12 to PA12GB). Statistical analysis confirmed significant differences between adhesive types (F_3,24 = 31.37, p < 0.001), with adhesive selection accounting for 65.7% of total performance variance. In addition to the experimental work, a finite element-based numerical simulation was performed to analyze the distribution of shear and peel stresses across the adhesive layer using Siemens Simcenter 3D 2406 software with the NX Nastran solver. The numerical results were compared with analytical predictions from the Volkersen and Goland–Reissner models. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)

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43 pages, 9117 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Guide for Industrial Needleless Electrospinning of Synthetic and Hybrid Nanofibers

by Baturalp Yalcinkaya and Matej Buzgo

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3019; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223019 - 13 Nov 2025

This study presents a comprehensive investigation into the large-scale production of synthetic and hybrid (nanoparticle-loaded) nanofibers using needleless electrospinning. A diverse range of polymers, including polyamide 6 (PA6) and its other polymer combinations, recycled PA6, polyamide 11 (PA11), polyamide 12 (PA12), polyvinyl butyral [...] Read more.

This study presents a comprehensive investigation into the large-scale production of synthetic and hybrid (nanoparticle-loaded) nanofibers using needleless electrospinning. A diverse range of polymers, including polyamide 6 (PA6) and its other polymer combinations, recycled PA6, polyamide 11 (PA11), polyamide 12 (PA12), polyvinyl butyral (PVB), polycaprolactone (PCL), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and cellulose acetate (CA), were utilized to fabricate nanofibers with tailored properties such as polymer solution concentrations and various solvent systems. Furthermore, an extensive variety of nano- and micro-particles, including TiO₂, ZnO, MgO, CuO, Ag, graphene oxide, CeO₂, Er₂O₃, WO₃, MnO₂, and hyperbranched polymers, were incorporated into the polymeric systems to engineer multifunctional nanofibers with enhanced structural characteristics. The study examines the impact of polymer–nano/micro-particle interactions, fiber morphology, and the feasibility of large-scale production via needleless electrospinning. The resulting nanofibers exhibited diameters starting from 80 nm, depending on the polymer and processing conditions. The incorporation of TiO₂, CeO₂, WO₃, Ag, and ZnO nanoparticles into 15% PA6 solutions yielded well-dispersed hybrid nanofibers. By providing insights into polymer selection, nano- and micro-particle integration, and large-scale production techniques, this work establishes a versatile platform for scalable hybrid nanofiber fabrication, paving the way for innovative applications in nanotechnology and materials science. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber Spinning Technologies and Functional Polymer Fiber Development)

14 pages, 1542 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Hertz Contact Model for Evaluating Mechanical Properties of Polymers Using the Finite Element Method

by Laisvidas Striska, Rokas Astrauskas, Nikolajus Kozulinas, Dainius Udris, Sonata Tolvaisiene, Eugenijus Macerauskas, Inga Morkvenaite and Arunas Ramanavicius

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3018; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223018 - 13 Nov 2025

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is widely used to quantify mechanical properties, typically Young’s modulus, by fitting force–indentation data with various mathematical contact models. However, results across laboratories often diverge, and the causes remain unresolved. Here, we interrogate the methodology by which mechanical properties [...] Read more.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is widely used to quantify mechanical properties, typically Young’s modulus, by fitting force–indentation data with various mathematical contact models. However, results across laboratories often diverge, and the causes remain unresolved. Here, we interrogate the methodology by which mechanical properties are defined in AFM indentation and identify key limitations of the Hertz model, the standard model for determining mechanical properties, notably that the contact radius is not directly determined, which limits the accuracy of the estimated Young’s modulus. We hypothesize that this inference systematically overestimates the true tip–sample contact, which inflates the contact area and thereby underestimates Young’s modulus. This bias is amplified under large indentation conditions, which are frequently used in soft-material studies. To isolate and clarify the issue, we focus on a well-characterized polymer, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), using it as a controlled testbed for contact radius overestimation. Our analysis is focused on the contact radius and Hertz-based extraction of Young’s modulus. We determined the contact radius and Young’s modulus using AFM with two different probes: a sphere with a 20 nm radius (SPHERE20) and a sphere with a 2 µm radius (SPHERE2000). The results were compared to macroscopic data obtained using a standard measurement (ISO 527-1:2019) of Young’s modulus. The contact was modeled using finite element analysis (FEA). The dependence of the contact radius on the indentation was compared to the Hertz model. The results from FEA fit corrected contact radius values, and it is smaller by 15.46% (SPHERE20) and 57.9% (SPHERE2000) than those calculated by the Hertz model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Analysis and Characterization)

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16 pages, 2741 KB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis, Characterisation and Preliminary Antimicrobial Evaluation of Chitosan-4-Anisaldehyde Conjugates

by Danelya N. Makhayeva, Dayana D. Mukhamediya, Saiyara R. Tairova, Ardak Jumagaziyeva, Galiya S. Irmukhametova and Vitaliy V. Khutoryanskiy

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3017; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223017 - 13 Nov 2025

The growing need for effective antimicrobial polymeric materials has prompted extensive development of functional chitosan derivatives with enhanced physicochemical and biological properties. In this work, the conjugates of chitosan with 4-anisaldehyde (ChT-AA) were synthesised through Schiff base formation at various molar ratios and [...] Read more.

The growing need for effective antimicrobial polymeric materials has prompted extensive development of functional chitosan derivatives with enhanced physicochemical and biological properties. In this work, the conjugates of chitosan with 4-anisaldehyde (ChT-AA) were synthesised through Schiff base formation at various molar ratios and characterised using FT-IR, ¹H NMR, and thermal analysis techniques (TGA/DSC). The spectral data confirmed the successful formation of imine (C=N) linkages and the incorporation of aromatic anisaldehyde fragments into the chitosan structure. Thermal analysis demonstrated increased stability and a higher glass transition temperature for ChT-AA compared with native chitosan, indicating reduced polymer chain mobility and enhanced structural rigidity. Viscoelastic gels based on the synthesised ChT-AA (1:3) and methylcellulose were prepared and evaluated for their rheological properties and antimicrobial performance. Rheological studies revealed non-Newtonian shear-thinning behaviour of these gels with pronounced thixotropy, confirming reversible network recovery after shear deformation. Antimicrobial evaluation of chitosan, its 4-anisaldehyde conjugate (ChT–AA, 1:3), and free 4-anisaldehyde revealed distinct activity patterns. The gels showed no inhibition in the disk diffusion assay, likely due to limited diffusion of the active components. In liquid media, both ChT and ChT–AA exhibited identical minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) against E. coli (0.313 mg/mL) and C. albicans (1.250 mg/mL), whereas ChT–AA showed two-fold stronger activity against S. aureus (0.313 mg/mL vs. 0.625 mg/mL for ChT). Free 4-anisaldehyde was most active against S. aureus (MIC = 0.175 mg/mL) but less effective against the other strains, confirming its narrower spectrum. These results indicate moderate antimicrobial efficacy in solution but limited activity in gel form due to restricted diffusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Natural Polymers for Biomedical Applications)

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24 pages, 2681 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Tyre Pyrolysis Oil as Potential Diesel Fuel Blend with Focus on Swelling Behaviour of Nitrile-Butadiene Rubber

by Steffen Seitz, Tobias Förster and Sebastian Eibl

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3016; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223016 - 13 Nov 2025

This study examines the swelling behaviour of nitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR) when interacting with tyre pyrolysis oils (TPO), with a focus on the chemical composition of TPO and their interaction with rubber matrices. Initially, a comparative analysis with conventional diesel fuel (DF) was performed [...] Read more.

This study examines the swelling behaviour of nitrile-butadiene rubber (NBR) when interacting with tyre pyrolysis oils (TPO), with a focus on the chemical composition of TPO and their interaction with rubber matrices. Initially, a comparative analysis with conventional diesel fuel (DF) was performed using advanced analytical techniques, including two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (2D-GC/MS), infrared (IR) spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) spectroscopy. The analysis revealed that TPO contains a significantly higher proportion of aromatic hydrocarbons than DF, along with unsaturated and oxygen-containing compounds not present in DF. Based on these compositional differences, blends of TPO and DF were formulated and evaluated for their suitability as liquid energy carriers according to the specifications of DF. In principle, blends with an addition of up to 5 vol% TPO in DF are technically suitable for use as fuel. Subsequently, the sorption behaviour of TPO, DF, and their blends in NBR was investigated. The swelling potential was determined based on mass, density, and volume, and the changes in the hardness and tensile strength of NBR were recorded. The results demonstrate that TPO induces pronounced swelling in NBR, as evidenced by a marked increase in mass uptake and volume expansion. A linear increase was observed between the degree of swelling and the increasing TPO content in the blends. Mechanical property assessments revealed a corresponding decrease in the hardness and tensile strength of NBR upon exposure to TPO, with the most severe effects associated with neat TPO. This work provides a comprehensive assessment of TPO as a potential blend component for DF. It highlights the need for careful consideration of material compatibility in practical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploration and Innovation in Sustainable Rubber Performance)

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17 pages, 2687 KB

Open AccessArticle

Electrochemical Sensing of Lead Ions Using Ionophore-Modified Raspberry-like Fe₃O₄–Au Nanostructures via Differential Pulse Voltammetry

by Giang Huong Dau, Tin Phan Nguy, Tram Thi Ngoc Do, Thanh Van Pham and Lien Thi Ngoc Truong

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3015; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223015 - 13 Nov 2025

This study presents the design and application of an electrochemical sensor for selective detection of lead ions (Pb²⁺) based on ionophore-modified raspberry-like Fe₃O₄–Au nanostructures. The material was engineered with a magnetic Fe₃O₄ core, coated [...] Read more.

This study presents the design and application of an electrochemical sensor for selective detection of lead ions (Pb²⁺) based on ionophore-modified raspberry-like Fe₃O₄–Au nanostructures. The material was engineered with a magnetic Fe₃O₄ core, coated with polyethyleneimine (PEI) to facilitate nucleation, and subsequently decorated with Au nanoparticles, providing a raspberry-like (Fe₃O₄@PEI@AuNPs) nanostructure with high surface area and excellent electrochemical conductivity. Surface functionalization with Lead Ionophore IV (ionophore thiol) introduced Pb²⁺-selective binding sites, whose presence and structural evolution were verified by TEM and Raman spectroscopy. The Fe₃O₄ core endowed strong magnetic properties, enabling facile manipulation and immobilization onto screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) via physical adsorption, while the Au nanoparticles enhanced electron transfer, supplied thiol-binding sites for stable ionophore anchoring, and increased the effective electroactive surface area. Operational conditions were systematically optimized, with acetate buffer (HAc/NaAc, pH 5.7) and chronoamperometric preconcentration (CA) at −1.0 V for 175 s identified as optimal for differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) measurements. Under these conditions, the sensor exhibited a linear response toward Pb²⁺ from 0.025 mM to 2.00 mM with superior sensitivity and reproducibility compared to conventional AuNP-modified SPCEs. Furthermore, the ionophore-modified Fe₃O₄–Au nanostructure-based sensor demonstrated outstanding selectivity for Pb²⁺ over competing heavy metal ions (Cd²⁺, Hg²⁺, Cr³⁺), owing to the specific coordination interaction of Lead Ionophore IV with target ions. These findings highlight the potential of raspberry-like Fe₃O₄@PEI@AuNP nanostructures as a robust and efficient electrochemical platform for the sensitive and selective detection of toxic heavy metal ions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application and Development of Polymeric Materials in Electrochemistry)

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17 pages, 8731 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Research of Gradient Polymer-Metal Materials Obtained Using Additive Technologies, with an Assessment of Their Functional and Mechanical Properties

by Svetlana Tyurina, Varvara Karzakova, Victor Demin, Chao Zhang and Peter Rusinov

Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3014; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223014 - 13 Nov 2025

This paper addresses the challenge of producing lightweight, low-cost, and highly functional devices and components for the electronics industry. To tackle this issue, functionally graded materials consisting of a polymer base and a metallic conductive layer were developed. Technology for producing functionally graded [...] Read more.

This paper addresses the challenge of producing lightweight, low-cost, and highly functional devices and components for the electronics industry. To tackle this issue, functionally graded materials consisting of a polymer base and a metallic conductive layer were developed. Technology for producing functionally graded materials was created and optimized. To evaluate the influence of key process parameters on the functional and mechanical properties of the composites, three-dimensional models were constructed and mathematical equations were formulated. The continuity and thickness of the surface layer were examined, the dielectric properties of the polymer material were measured, the resistance of the conductive surface layer was assessed, and adhesion tests of the surface layer were performed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Processing and Engineering)

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