Agriculture

20 pages, 2611 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Phenanthrene Soil Pollution on Cadmium Bioaccumulation and Metabolic Responses in Maize (Zea mays L.)

by Guangwei Zhang, Guohui Ning, Yukun Zhang, Qingyu Meng, Jiahui Li, Mingyue Qi, Liqian Chen, Liang Mi, Jiayuan Gao, Meng Zhang, Xiaoxue Zhang, Xiaomin Wang and Zhixin Yang

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1957; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181957 - 16 Sep 2025

Abstract

Co-contamination of cadmium (Cd) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in agricultural soils poses a critical threat to crops and food safety, but how PAHs affect Cd uptake and plant metabolism is still unclear. Maize (Zea mays L.) of the variety Hanyu 702 [...] Read more.

Co-contamination of cadmium (Cd) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in agricultural soils poses a critical threat to crops and food safety, but how PAHs affect Cd uptake and plant metabolism is still unclear. Maize (Zea mays L.) of the variety Hanyu 702 (HY702) was previously identified by our group asaccumulating Cd at low levels when grown in soil containing Cd and phenanthrene (Phe). These contaminants were used here as model pollutions, alone and in combination, to assess the accumulation, growth, physiological, and metabolic responses of HY702 seedlings. Four treatments were compared, including a control without pollution, single Phe pollution, single Cd pollution, and Cd and Phe combined pollution. The experiments followed a completely randomized design with three replicates per treatment. The results revealed that Cd accumulation in the plants was significantly reduced when Phe was present as well (9% reduction in roots and 44% in stems and leaves compared to Cd single pollution). The combined Cd-Phe pollution had no significant impact on the height or chlorophyll content of the maize plants but markedly reduced their malondialdehyde (MDA) content. In addition, it increased the proline content by 56% and antioxidant enzyme activity by 15% (peroxidase, POD), 24% (superoxide dismutase, SOD), and 57% (catalase, CAT) compared to the control treatment. Metabolomics analysis revealed that the coexistence of Phe and Cd activated four key metabolic pathways: (a) alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism; (b) valine, leucine, and isoleucine biosynthesis; (c) aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis; and (d) histidine metabolism. This activation resulted in increased levels of six differential metabolites: L-asparagine, L-methionine, L-glutamate, (S)-2-acetyl-2-hydroxybutanoic acid, urocanic acid, and 2-isopropylmalic acid. These metabolites induced detoxification pathways and reduced Cd accumulation. The findings reported here offer new insights into how plants metabolically adapt to the combined pollution of Cd and PAHs and provide an important scientific basis for pollution control strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)

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15 pages, 4599 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Biodegradable Film Mulching and Water-Saving Irrigation on Soil Moisture and Temperature in Paddy Fields of the Black Soil Region

by Jizhen Li, Yuning He, Jilong Liu, Yinqi Wang, Yunze Guo and Yuchen Lu

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1956; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181956 - 16 Sep 2025

Abstract

Paddy cultivation in the black soil region of northeast China is faced with the problems of low irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) and low temperature stress during sowing. Therefore, the combinations of film mulching and water-saving irrigation methods were adopted to adjust the [...] Read more.

Paddy cultivation in the black soil region of northeast China is faced with the problems of low irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) and low temperature stress during sowing. Therefore, the combinations of film mulching and water-saving irrigation methods were adopted to adjust the balance between water and yield under the condition of suitable soil water and heat environment, and to quantify the relationship between irrigation water and yield formation. This study investigated the mechanisms of two kinds of biodegradable film mulching combined with two water-saving irrigation on soil hydrothermal conditions in cold-region paddy fields. The results show that film mulching improved the water retention capacity of the soil at different depths, with black film exhibiting better moisture conservation than white film. Overall, controlled irrigation resulted in higher soil moisture than ridge irrigation before the heading–flowering stage, but lower values in heading–flower stage and the later stage. Film mulching also increased soil temperature across different layers, with black film showing a more warming effect in the 0–5 cm soil layer. All combinations of biodegradable film mulching and water-saving irrigation enhanced the IWUE, with the ridge irrigation combined with black film mulching showing the most significant improvement. This research provides technical references for water-efficient rice cultivation in cold regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Water Management)

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31 pages, 924 KB

Open AccessReview

Soilless Growing Media for Cannabis Cultivation

by Matěj Malík and Pavel Tlustoš

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1955; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181955 - 16 Sep 2025

Abstract

Standardized pharmaceutical-grade cultivation of Cannabis sativa L. increasingly relies on soilless systems for precision, reproducibility, and regulatory compliance. This review examines the role of inert and semi-inert growing media in indoor cannabis production, focusing on their physical properties, agronomic performance, and sustainability. A [...] Read more.

Standardized pharmaceutical-grade cultivation of Cannabis sativa L. increasingly relies on soilless systems for precision, reproducibility, and regulatory compliance. This review examines the role of inert and semi-inert growing media in indoor cannabis production, focusing on their physical properties, agronomic performance, and sustainability. A systematic literature search was conducted using databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, emphasizing peer-reviewed original research, experimental trials, and relevant review articles. Evaluated substrates include rockwool, coconut coir, peat-based blends, perlite, vermiculite, expanded clay, foamed glass, phenolic foam, and biochar. Findings show that substrate selection strongly affects vegetative growth, rooting, and flower yield, while cannabinoid concentrations remain primarily genotype-driven under stable environmental and nutritional conditions. Substrate-specific traits such as aeration, water-holding capacity, and nutrient buffering significantly influence biomass production and resource-use efficiency. Rockwool remains the industry standard due to its uniformity and compatibility with fertigation systems, but renewable alternatives like coconut coir and biochar are gaining traction. This review underscores the importance of substrate selection in cannabis cultivation and identifies research gaps in genotype-specific responses and the development of sustainable growing media. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agronomic Practices for Enhancing Quality and Yield of Aromatic and Medicinal Crops)

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23 pages, 172516 KB

Open AccessArticle

YOLOv8n-Pose-DSW: A Precision Picking Point Localization Model for Zucchini in Complex Greenhouse Environments

by Hongxiong Su, Sa Wang, Honglin Su, Fumin Ma, Yanwen Li and Juxia Li

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1954; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181954 - 16 Sep 2025

Abstract

Zucchini growth in greenhouse environments presents significant challenges for fruit recognition and picking point localization due to characteristics such as foliage occlusion, high density, structural complexity, and diverse fruit morphologies. Current recognition and localization algorithms exhibit limitations including low accuracy, restricted applicability, and [...] Read more.

Zucchini growth in greenhouse environments presents significant challenges for fruit recognition and picking point localization due to characteristics such as foliage occlusion, high density, structural complexity, and diverse fruit morphologies. Current recognition and localization algorithms exhibit limitations including low accuracy, restricted applicability, and procedural complexity, falling short of the requirements for precise and robust intelligent harvesting. To address these issues, this study constructs a zucchini dataset of 942 images using an Intel RealSense D455 depth camera and a smartphone, and proposes a novel keypoint detection model named YOLOv8n-Pose-DSW. The model introduces three key enhancements compared with YOLOv8n-Pose. First, the conventional upsample operator is replaced with an adaptive point sampling operator called Dysample, improving detection accuracy while reducing GPU memory consumption. Second, a Slim-Neck structure is designed to decrease computational overhead through lightweight bottleneck architecture, while preserving robust feature representation. Third, the WIoU-v3 loss is adopted to optimize bounding box regression for object detection, thereby enhancing localization accuracy. Experimental results demonstrate that YOLOv8n-Pose-DSW achieves a zucchini detection P, R, mAP@50, and mAP@50–95 of 92.1%, 90.7%, 94.0%, and 71.4%, respectively. These metrics represent improvements of 3.3%, 11.7%, 7.4%, and 15.4%, respectively, over the original model. For picking point localization, the improved model attains a P of 93.1%, R of 89.5%, mAP@50 of 95.6%, and mAP@50–95 of 95.2%, corresponding to gains of 8.8%, 11.0%, 11.3%, and 27.9% over the original model. Further error analysis shows that picking point localization errors are concentrated within the 0–4-pixel range, demonstrating enhanced localization precision critical for practical harvesting applications. The proposed algorithm effectively addresses greenhouse environmental challenges and provides essential technical support for intelligent zucchini harvesting systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Artificial Intelligence and Digital Agriculture)

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28 pages, 1012 KB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Better Understanding of Socioeconomic Resilience Challenges in Food Systems of the Baltic States: Focus on Agriculture

by Nelė Jurkėnaitė

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1953; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181953 - 16 Sep 2025

Abstract

Global food systems have faced multiple shocks that threaten the implementation of their main functions. This article analyzes the most recent studies and aims to develop a socioeconomic resilience assessment dashboard for agriculture as a component of the food system and estimate the [...] Read more.

Global food systems have faced multiple shocks that threaten the implementation of their main functions. This article analyzes the most recent studies and aims to develop a socioeconomic resilience assessment dashboard for agriculture as a component of the food system and estimate the resilience of the Baltic states in 2013 and 2023. The selected years allow us to compare resilience before and after the most recent agricultural market crisis. The resilience assessment dashboard includes leading and lagging indicators and uses the distance to a reference measure normalization method to compare resilience indicators in individual countries with the EU average. Leading indicators, focusing on the ability of the system to implement changes, distinguish the Estonian case and suggest that structural patterns of this country could empower different actions to increase resilience compared to other Baltic states. Lagging indicators, focusing on the key functions of the system, suggest that the Baltic states have improved their nutritional security; however, this research identifies a high concentration of ex-EU imports for the fats and oils group, the animal products group, except for the CN03 category, and the vegetable products group, with the exception of the CN08 and CN09 categories, as an important resilience challenge of national food security. The results imply the importance of policy actions aiming at the further development of national trade networks and the diversification of import markets. Farm economic viability indicators, except for debt ratio, evidence annual instability and unfavorable resilience compared to the EU average, while, in Latvia and Lithuania, agriculture remains an important employer and contributes to the resilience of national economies. The analyzed leading indicators suggest that the Baltic states could prioritize different agricultural policy actions and budget allocation addressing national farm viability and agricultural employment challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)

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22 pages, 3632 KB

Open AccessArticle

RFR-YOLO-Based Recognition Method for Dairy Cow Behavior in Farming Environments

by Congcong Li, Jialong Ma, Shifeng Cao and Leifeng Guo

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1952; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181952 - 15 Sep 2025

Abstract

Cow behavior recognition constitutes a fundamental element of effective cow health monitoring and intelligent farming systems. Within large-scale cow farming environments, several critical challenges persist, including the difficulty in accurately capturing behavioral feature information, substantial variations in multi-scale features, and high inter-class similarity [...] Read more.

Cow behavior recognition constitutes a fundamental element of effective cow health monitoring and intelligent farming systems. Within large-scale cow farming environments, several critical challenges persist, including the difficulty in accurately capturing behavioral feature information, substantial variations in multi-scale features, and high inter-class similarity among different cow behaviors. To address these limitations, this study introduces an enhanced target detection algorithm for cow behavior recognition, termed RFR-YOLO, which is developed upon the YOLOv11n framework. A well-structured dataset encompassing nine distinct cow behaviors—namely, lying, standing, walking, eating, drinking, licking, grooming, estrus, and limping—is constructed, comprising a total of 13,224 labeled samples. The proposed algorithm incorporates three major technical improvements: First, an Inverted Dilated Convolution module (Region Semantic Inverted Convolution, RsiConv) is designed and seamlessly integrated with the C3K2 module to form the C3K2_Rsi module, which effectively reduces computational overhead while enhancing feature representation. Second, a Four-branch Multi-scale Dilated Attention mechanism (Four Multi-Scale Dilated Attention, FMSDA) is incorporated into the network architecture, enabling the scale-specific features to align with the corresponding receptive fields, thereby improving the model’s capacity to capture multi-scale characteristics. Third, a Reparameterized Generalized Residual Feature Pyramid Network (Reparameterized Generalized Residual-FPN, RepGRFPN) is introduced as the Neck component, allowing for the features to propagate through differentiated pathways and enabling flexible control over multi-scale feature expression, thereby facilitating efficient feature fusion and mitigating the impact of behavioral similarity. The experimental results demonstrate that RFR-YOLO achieves precision, recall, mAP50, and mAP50:95 values of 95.9%, 91.2%, 94.9%, and 85.2%, respectively, representing performance gains of 5.5%, 5%, 5.6%, and 3.5% over the baseline model. Despite a marginal increase in computational complexity of 1.4G, the algorithm retains a high detection speed of 147.6 frames per second. The proposed RFR-YOLO algorithm significantly improves the accuracy and robustness of target detection in group cow farming scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farm Animal Production)

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19 pages, 2806 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phenolic and Fatty Acid Changes in ‘Leccino’ Olives (Olea europaea L.) Under Different Postharvest Conditions

by Tea Burin, Mariana Cecilia Grohar, Jerneja Jakopic and Metka Hudina

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1951; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181951 - 15 Sep 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the changes in mechanically harvested ‘Leccino’ olives stored under cold and room-temperature conditions from harvest up to 23 days of storage during two consecutive seasons. Variations in quality parameters, including maturity index, weight, firmness, and colour, were monitored throughout the [...] Read more.

This study investigates the changes in mechanically harvested ‘Leccino’ olives stored under cold and room-temperature conditions from harvest up to 23 days of storage during two consecutive seasons. Variations in quality parameters, including maturity index, weight, firmness, and colour, were monitored throughout the storage period. In addition, the phenolic profile of the olives was analysed using HPLC, and the fatty acid composition was determined by GC–MS. These analyses enabled a comparison of changes across different storage durations, seasons, and storage conditions. Results show that fruit ripeness at harvest differed notably between the two seasons. In the second season, the olives displayed a higher maturity index, lower firmness, and lower content of certain individual phenolic compounds, indicating a more advanced stage of ripening compared to that of the previous year. These initial differences strongly influenced the subsequent development of fruit quality and biochemical characteristics during storage. Storage temperature had a significant effect on the quality parameters and metabolism. As expected, olives stored at room temperature lost their firmness and weight more quickly than those stored under cold conditions. The most abundant phenolic in olive fruit, oleuropein, degraded more rapidly at room temperature, resulting in a quicker accumulation of its derivatives. Fatty acids were more stable than phenolic compounds during storage, likely due to their lower susceptibility to enzymatic degradation and oxidative reactions under the tested conditions. While saturated fatty acids remained largely unchanged, a slight increase in unsaturated fatty acids was observed after 23 days of cold storage, possibly as a result of adaptations of the membrane to cold storage conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemical Changes in Vegetables and Fruits During Post-Harvest Storage and Processing)

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Graphical abstract

15 pages, 1680 KB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Effects on Atractylodes macrocephala Rhizome Growth and Compounds

by Dong Hwan Lee, Yonghwan Son, Jun Hyuk Jang, Dae Hui Jeong, Hyun-Jun Kim and Ji Ah Kim

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1950; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181950 - 15 Sep 2025

Abstract

The rhizome of Atractylodes macrocephala, a perennial herb in the Asteraceae family, is valued for its bioactive atractylenolides, but achieving consistent quality in cultivation is challenging. This study aimed to decipher how environmental factors differentially regulate its biomass and atractylenolide content. We [...] Read more.

The rhizome of Atractylodes macrocephala, a perennial herb in the Asteraceae family, is valued for its bioactive atractylenolides, but achieving consistent quality in cultivation is challenging. This study aimed to decipher how environmental factors differentially regulate its biomass and atractylenolide content. We sampled from 22 Korean cultivation sites and performed correlation analyses, rigorously controlled by a False Discovery Rate (FDR) correction. Our analysis revealed that the environmental networks governing quantitative growth and qualitative composition are largely independent. While growth was weakly correlated with environmental factors, likely due to suboptimal temperatures at our sites, atractylenolide content was robustly associated with soil properties and climate. Specifically, soil texture was a dominant factor, with sand content showing a strong negative correlation (−0.717 ***) with total atractylenolides, whereas silt (0.675 ***) and clay (0.622 ***) had strong positive correlations. Additionally, cation exchange capacity (0.517 *) and temperature were positively correlated, while relative humidity showed a negative correlation (−0.553 **). This decoupling suggests that optimizing yield and phytochemical quality requires distinct cultivation strategies, providing a foundational framework for developing site-specific practices and quality control for this high-value medicinal herb. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Production)

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16 pages, 3136 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Objective Nitrogen Optimization in Tea Cultivation: A Pathway to Achieve Sustainability in Cash Crop Systems

by Jinze Pei, Hongyu Yang, Menghan Huang, Xiaojun Yan, Xinran Zeng, Lijin Guo and Liangquan Wu

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1949; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181949 - 15 Sep 2025

Abstract

Excessive nitrogen fertilizer application in tea plantations is a common problem that leads to soil acidification and reductions in both yield and economic returns. To evaluate the impacts of varying nitrogen input levels (0–600 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) on yield, [...] Read more.

Excessive nitrogen fertilizer application in tea plantations is a common problem that leads to soil acidification and reductions in both yield and economic returns. To evaluate the impacts of varying nitrogen input levels (0–600 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) on yield, as well as environmental and economic outcomes, a two-year field experiment was conducted. Results demonstrated that when nitrogen application exceeded 150 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, key efficiency indicators—agronomic efficiency (NAE), recovery efficiency (NRE), and partial factor productivity (NPFP) declined markedly. Among all treatments, the 150 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ rate achieved the highest NRE at 28.01%. Moreover, environmental burdens including global warming potential, acidification, and eutrophication intensified with increasing nitrogen input. Benefit analysis revealed that yield-based economic returns peaked between 150 and 165 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, whereas the highest ecosystem economic benefit, accounting for both profit and environmental cost, occurred at 120 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹. Thus, 120 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ is identified as the optimal application rate for maximizing integrated economic and environmental returns while maintaining yield. These findings provide valuable guidance for promoting sustainable nitrogen management in tea cultivation worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Cultivation Technologies for Horticultural Crops Production)

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32 pages, 2147 KB

Open AccessArticle

Plant-Driven Precision Irrigation in Aeroponics: Real-Time Turgor Sensing for Sustainable Lettuce Cultivation

by Panagiotis Karnoutsos, Dimitrios Katsantonis, Anna Gkotzamani, Athanasios Koukounaras, Thomas Kotsopoulos, Xanthoula Eirini Pantazi and Vassilios P. Fragos

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1948; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181948 - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

The narrow margin for irrigation error in aeroponics necessitates advanced control strategies beyond fixed timer-based approaches. This study evaluates a plant-driven irrigation method based on real-time leaf turgor feedback in aeroponic romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. longifolia) cultivation. A leaf [...] Read more.

The narrow margin for irrigation error in aeroponics necessitates advanced control strategies beyond fixed timer-based approaches. This study evaluates a plant-driven irrigation method based on real-time leaf turgor feedback in aeroponic romaine lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. longifolia) cultivation. A leaf thickness–turgor sensor was interfaced with an Arduino Mega 2560 to activate misting events dynamically. Two identical aeroponic systems were operated in a fully controlled environment: a conventional timer-based control (TC) system applying mist every 10 min and an Arduino-controlled (AC) system triggered by turgor changes. Over two independent 37-day cultivation cycles, the AC strategy reduced total water use by an average of 15.9% and pump activations by 17.2% while improving water use efficiency by 17.8% and nutrient use efficiency for N, P, and K by an average of 17.8%, with no statistically significant differences in shoot biomass, height, or yield. Although root dry weight was significantly higher under TC, the AC treatment led to a 45.0% reduction in leaf nitrate accumulation and non-significant increases in phenolic content. These findings demonstrate the potential of turgor-responsive irrigation for enhancing sustainability, resource use efficiency, and the quality of produce in aeroponic systems, thereby supporting its broader integration into controlled-environment agriculture (CEA). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensor-Based Systems for Crop Monitoring)

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26 pages, 5039 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Prediction of Broiler Shipment Weight Using Vision-Assisted Load Cell Analysis

by Lunfei Yang and Juwhan Song

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1947; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181947 - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

Accurate prediction of broiler shipment weight is essential for optimizing production planning and meeting market demand. Previous studies have estimated representative daily weight values from load cell data using K-means clustering and kernel density estimation (KDE) and have applied forecasting models such as [...] Read more.

Accurate prediction of broiler shipment weight is essential for optimizing production planning and meeting market demand. Previous studies have estimated representative daily weight values from load cell data using K-means clustering and kernel density estimation (KDE) and have applied forecasting models such as Prophet, ARIMA, and Gompertz. Among these, the combination of K-means and Prophet demonstrated the best performance. In this study, we propose an enhanced method integrating computer vision with load cell measurements. The YOLOv8n model localizes broilers in images, while a 5-pixel edge region, both inside and outside the weighing platform boundaries, filters invalid weight values. This enables accurate broiler counting on the weighing platform. The instantaneous population mean weight distribution is estimated by dividing the total measured weight by the detected broiler count. The representative daily weight values are then calculated through averaging. Additionally, we compare five outlier processing methods to evaluate their effectiveness in improving prediction accuracy. Experimental results show that our method achieves a prediction error of less than 50 g for broiler shipment weights, which will significantly improve farm operation efficiency and reduce feeding cost losses. This approach has already been deployed in selected farms and is ready for comprehensive implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Artificial Intelligence and Digital Agriculture)

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35 pages, 30270 KB

Open AccessArticle

Season-Specific CNN and TVDI Approach for Soil Moisture and Irrigation Monitoring in the Hetao Irrigation District, China

by Yule Sun, Dongliang Zhang, Ze Miao, Shaodong Yang, Quanming Liu and Zhongyi Qu

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1946; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181946 - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

We develop a year-round, field-scale framework to retrieve soil moisture and map irrigation in an arid irrigation district where crop phenology and canopy dynamics undermine static, single-season approaches. However, the currently popular TVDI application is limited during non-growing seasons. To address this gap, [...] Read more.

We develop a year-round, field-scale framework to retrieve soil moisture and map irrigation in an arid irrigation district where crop phenology and canopy dynamics undermine static, single-season approaches. However, the currently popular TVDI application is limited during non-growing seasons. To address this gap, we introduce a season-stratified TVDI scheme—based on the LST–EVI feature space with phenology-specific dry/wet edges—coupled with a non-growing-season inversion that fuses Sentinel-1 SAR and Landsat features and compares multiple regressors (PLSR, RF, XGBoost, and CNN). The study leverages 2023–2024 multi-sensor image time series for the Yichang sub-district of the Hetao Irrigation District (China), together with in situ topsoil moisture, meteorological records, a local cropping calendar, and district statistics for validation. Methodologically, EVI is preferred over NDVI to mitigate saturation under dense canopies; season-specific edge fitting stabilizes TVDI, while cross-validated regressors yield robust soil-moisture retrievals outside the growing period, with the CNN achieving the highest accuracy (test R² ≈ 0.56–0.61), outperforming PLSR/RF/XGBoost by approximately 12–38%. The integrated mapping reveals complementary seasonal irrigation patterns: spring irrigates about 40–45% of farmland (e.g., 43.39% on 20 May 2024), summer peaks around 70% (e.g., 71.42% on 16 August 2024), and autumn stabilizes near 20–25% (e.g., 24.55% on 23 November 2024), with marked spatial contrasts between intensively irrigated southwest blocks and drier northeastern zones. We conclude that season-stratified edges and multi-source inversions together enable reproducible, year-round irrigation detection at field scale. These results provide operational evidence to refine irrigation scheduling and water allocation, and support drought-risk management and precision water governance in arid irrigation districts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Water Management)

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30 pages, 9423 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Scale Comprehensive Evaluation for Nine Evapotranspiration Products Across Mainland China Under Extreme Climatic Conditions

by Long Qian, Lifeng Wu, Ning Dong, Tianjin Dai, Xingjiao Yu, Xuqian Bai, Qiliang Yang, Xiaogang Liu, Junying Chen and Zhitao Zhang

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1945; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181945 - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

Accurate quantification of evapotranspiration (ET) is crucial for agricultural water management and climate change adaptation, especially in global warming and extreme climate events. Despite the availability of various ET products, their applicability across different scales and climatic conditions has not been comprehensively verified. [...] Read more.

Accurate quantification of evapotranspiration (ET) is crucial for agricultural water management and climate change adaptation, especially in global warming and extreme climate events. Despite the availability of various ET products, their applicability across different scales and climatic conditions has not been comprehensively verified. This study evaluates nine ET products at grid, basin, and site scales in China from 2003 to 2014 under varying climatic conditions, including extreme temperatures, vapor pressure deficit (VPD), and drought. The main results are as follows: (1) At the grid scale, all products except the MODIS/Terra Net Evapotranspiration 8-Day L4 Global 500m SIN Grid (MOD16A2) product showed high consistency, with the Global Land Evaporation Amsterdam Model V4.2a (GLEAM) product exhibiting the highest comparability. The three-cornered hat (TCH) method revealed that GLEAM and the Synthesized Global Actual Evapotranspiration Dataset (Syn) had low uncertainties in multiple basins, while the Reliability Ensemble Averaging (REA) product and Penman–Monteith–Leuning Evapotranspiration V2 (PMLv2) product had the smallest uncertainties in the Songhua River and Hai River Basins. (2) At the basin scale, ET products were closely aligned with water-balance-based ET (WB-ET), with GLEAM achieving the smallest root mean square error (RMSE) (22.94 mm/month). (3) At the site scale, accuracy decreased significantly under extreme climatic conditions, with the coefficient of determination (R²) dropping from about 0.60 to below 0.30 and the mean absolute error (MAE) increasing by 110.30% (extreme high temperatures) and 101.40% (extreme high VPD). Drought conditions caused slight instability in ET estimations, with MAE increasing by approximately 12.00–40.00%. (4) Finally, using a small number of daily ET products as inputs for machine learning models, such as random forest (RF), greatly improved ET estimation, with R² reaching 0.91 overall and 0.81 under extreme conditions. GLEAM was the most important product for RF in ET estimation. This study provides essential guidance for selecting and improving ET products to enhance agricultural water-use efficiency and sustainable irrigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Water Management)

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29 pages, 1996 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Genetics and Breeding of Grain Shape in Rice

by Qian Chen, Yuheng Zhu, Banpu Ruan and Yanchun Yu

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1944; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181944 - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

Grain shape is a critical determinant of rice yield, quality, and market value. Recent advances in molecular biology, genomics, and systems biology have revealed a complex regulatory network governing grain development, integrating genetic loci, plant hormone signaling, transcriptional regulation, protein ubiquitination, epigenetic modifications, [...] Read more.

Grain shape is a critical determinant of rice yield, quality, and market value. Recent advances in molecular biology, genomics, and systems biology have revealed a complex regulatory network governing grain development, integrating genetic loci, plant hormone signaling, transcriptional regulation, protein ubiquitination, epigenetic modifications, and environmental cues. This review summarizes key genetic components such as QTLs, transcription factors, and hormone pathways—including auxin, cytokinin, gibberellin, brassinosteroids, and abscisic acid—that influence seed size through regulation of cell division, expansion, and nutrient allocation. The roles of the ubiquitin–proteasome system, miRNAs, lncRNAs, and chromatin remodeling are also discussed, highlighting their importance in fine-tuning grain development. Furthermore, we examine environmental factors that impact grain filling and size, including temperature, light, and nutrient availability. We also explore cutting-edge breeding strategies such as gene editing, functional marker development, and wild germplasm utilization, along with the integration of multi-omics platforms like RiceAtlas to enable intelligent and ecological zone-specific precision breeding. Finally, challenges such as pleiotropy and non-additive gene interactions are discussed, and future directions are proposed to enhance grain shape improvement for yield stability and food security. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Molecular Mechanisms of Stress Tolerance in Rice)

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30 pages, 3853 KB

Open AccessReview

Electrification and Smartification for Modern Tractors: A Review of Algorithms and Techniques

by Chaoxian Zhang, Jun Li, Chuxi Li, Peihan Lin, Linlin Shi and Boyi Xiao

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1943; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181943 - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

Agricultural tractors account for a substantial portion of greenhouse gas emissions in the farming sector, necessitating the development of sustainable machinery solutions. This study systematically reviews the latest advancements in electrification and smartification technologies for modern tractors, with a particular focus on algorithmic [...] Read more.

Agricultural tractors account for a substantial portion of greenhouse gas emissions in the farming sector, necessitating the development of sustainable machinery solutions. This study systematically reviews the latest advancements in electrification and smartification technologies for modern tractors, with a particular focus on algorithmic control strategies and their applications. Architecturally, the study provides a comparative analysis of four key configurations, pure electric, series hybrid, parallel hybrid, and series-parallel hybrid, detailing their respective advantages and challenges in energy efficiency and operational performance. From an algorithmic perspective, three primary methodologies—rule-based control strategies, optimization algorithms, and reinforcement learning—are examined for their applicability in energy management and control systems. The research further explores the integration of intelligent systems in unmanned farming scenarios, addressing critical challenges such as adaptive path planning in unstructured environments and multi-machine collaborative operations. A case study on battery-electric tractors demonstrates practical advancements in battery technology and energy management systems. Lifecycle cost analysis confirms the long-term economic viability of electrification, while outlining a forward-looking technological roadmap for sustainable and intelligent agricultural machinery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Energy-Powered Agricultural Machinery and Equipment)

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17 pages, 5087 KB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Proteolytic System Activity Due to Varroa destructor Infestation in Apis mellifera Workers

by Magdalena Kunat-Budzyńska, Patrycja Staniszewska, Krzysztof Olszewski and Aneta Strachecka

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1942; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181942 - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

The proteolytic system plays a crucial role in maintaining the homeostasis and defence against pathogens. Its proper functioning depends on the balance between the activities of proteases and their inhibitors. The disturbing of this balance, caused, for example, by Varroa destructor, brings [...] Read more.

The proteolytic system plays a crucial role in maintaining the homeostasis and defence against pathogens. Its proper functioning depends on the balance between the activities of proteases and their inhibitors. The disturbing of this balance, caused, for example, by Varroa destructor, brings about physiological/metabolic changes leading to premature aging. Therefore, our study aimed to investigate the effect of V. destructor on the activities of acidic, neutral, and alkaline proteases and their inhibitors in bee hemolymph and fat body segments (from tergite 3, tergite 5 and sternite). The parasite caused a decrease in the protease and protease inhibitor activities, accelerating the aging process. In healthy worker bees, proteolytic activity in the fat body segments increased with age, peaking at 21–28 days, and subsequently declined in 35-day-old workers. Additionally, it was observed that tergite 5 was the segment characterized by the highest activity of the proteolytic system, which indicates that it can be used as a biomarker of aging and immunity. Studying the proteolytic system is important because it allows for a more detailed understanding of immunity mechanisms, aging processes, and responses to infection, which may contribute to the development of preparations promoting apian health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Environmental Factors and Pesticides on Bee Behavior)

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14 pages, 3310 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Co-Application of Biochar and Nitrogen Fertilizer on Soil Properties and Microbial Communities in Tea Plantation

by Cenwei Liu, Jing Ye, Yi Lin, Xiaomei Wu, Weixi Shu and Yixiang Wang

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1941; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181941 - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

Soil acidification reduces the abundance and activity of beneficial microorganisms, impairs tea plant growth, and ultimately leads to a decline in tea quality. Maintaining healthy soil is critical for sustainable tea agriculture. However, the interactive effect of biochar and nitrogen fertilizer on the [...] Read more.

Soil acidification reduces the abundance and activity of beneficial microorganisms, impairs tea plant growth, and ultimately leads to a decline in tea quality. Maintaining healthy soil is critical for sustainable tea agriculture. However, the interactive effect of biochar and nitrogen fertilizer on the microbial community structure and function in acidic tea plantation soils remains unclear. This study was designed to explore whether the co-application of biochar and fertilizer could enhance soil properties and maintain microbial health in tea plantations. Three treatments were set up through a controlled pot experiment: no fertilizer or biochar application (B₀N₀), fertilizer without biochar (B₀N₁), and biochar with fertilizer (B₁N₁). High-throughput sequencing technology was used to investigate the characteristics of soil microbial communities in tea plantations. Biochar amendment increased soil pH by 0.8 units, organic matter and total nitrogen by 13.5% and 21.4%, and reduced NH₄⁺-N and NO₃⁻-N leaching by 10.8% and 12.9%, respectively. It also modulated microbial community structure, enhanced the abundance of nitrogen-cycling genes (e.g., narB, nirK, nosZ), and influenced nitrogen availability through adsorption. Nitrate was identified as the main factor shaping microbial communities under fertilization. These results highlight the potential of biochar as a sustainable amendment to improve soil health and nitrogen retention in tea cultivation systems. Further field studies are warranted to validate its efficacy in enhancing tea productivity and reducing environmental nitrogen losses under real-world conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)

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18 pages, 1316 KB

Open AccessArticle

Control of Postharvest Performance of the Lilacs ‘Andenken an Ludwig Spaeth’ Induced to Flower in Spring

by Ewa Skutnik, Aleksandra Łukaszewska, Diana Musiał, Agnieszka Zawadzińska, Piotr Salachna and Julita Rabiza-Świder

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1940; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181940 - 14 Sep 2025

Abstract

Common lilac (Syringa vulgaris) is an important cut flower on the flower market. The process of forcing shrub is crucial for lilac availability for floristry for six months of the year: from November to April. In this study, the vase life [...] Read more.

Common lilac (Syringa vulgaris) is an important cut flower on the flower market. The process of forcing shrub is crucial for lilac availability for floristry for six months of the year: from November to April. In this study, the vase life and certain biochemical processes occurring during senescence of cut lilacs ‘Andenken an Ludwig Spaeth’ induced to flower between March and May were investigated. Additionally, the effect of standard preservative (8-HQC + 2% S) and biocide (8-HQC) was analyzed. The vase life in water was relatively short (4 d), although it lengthened with the season and the standard preservative improved it. This solution enhanced florets’ fresh weight, water uptake, and transpiration rate, also caused an increase in the electroconductivity of the cell sap. Several other senescence-associated parameters such as carbohydrate, soluble protein and free proline contents were affected by the preservative whose effects were comparable to those found earlier in the winter forced lilacs. A highly efficient antioxidant enzyme system including catalase (CAT), peroxidases (POX) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) was present in developing inflorescences but the enzyme activity decreased in senescing florets. The hydrogen peroxide content and catalase activity were the highest in the biocide-treated flowers. Generally, in cut lilacs induced to bloom in April the changes in senescence-associated phenomena under study were occurring as in the flowers forced for November–December sales. Research shows the significant importance of sugar as a component of the cut flower preservatives whose use was essential for a proper bud development and good postharvest quality of cut lilacs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Product Quality and Safety)

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25 pages, 5195 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Experimental Research on an Automated Force-Measuring Device for Plug Seedling Extraction

by Tengyuan Hou, Xinxin Chen, Jianping Hu, Wei Liu, Junpeng Lv, Youheng Tan and Fengpeng Li

Agriculture 2025, 15(18), 1939; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15181939 - 13 Sep 2025

Abstract

Existing force-measuring devices lack versatility in studying the dynamic coupling process between the seedling-picking device and the plug seedling pot during automatic transplanting. This research developed a universal force-measuring device featuring a centrally symmetrical clamping needle layout and a simultaneous insertion and clamping [...] Read more.

Existing force-measuring devices lack versatility in studying the dynamic coupling process between the seedling-picking device and the plug seedling pot during automatic transplanting. This research developed a universal force-measuring device featuring a centrally symmetrical clamping needle layout and a simultaneous insertion and clamping mechanism. The force-measuring device enables the flexible adjustment of the number of clamping needles (2/3/4 needles) via a modular structure. It can also modify the insertion depth and angle of the clamping needles to accommodate three specifications of plug seedlings, namely 50-hole, 72-hole, and 128-hole plug seedlings. A real-time monitoring system with dual pull-pressure sensors is integrated to precisely acquire the dynamic response curves of the clamping force (F_J) and the disengaging force (F_N) of the plug seedling pot during the seedling-picking process. Taking water spinach plug seedlings as the research object and combining with EDEM-RecurDyn coupling simulation, the interaction mechanism between the clamping needle and the plug seedling pot was elucidated. The performance of the force-measuring device was verified through systematic force-measuring experiments. The main research findings are as follows: The force-measuring device designed in this study can successfully obtain the mechanical characteristic curve of the relevant seedling plug pot throughout the automatic seedling-picking process. The simulation results show high consistency with the experimental results, indicating that the force-measuring device can effectively reveal the dynamic coupling process between the seedling-picking device and the plug seedling pot. The verification experiment demonstrates that the force-measuring device can effectively quantify the mechanical properties of the of plug seedling pots under different plug seedlings specifications and different clamping needles configurations. Reducing the hole size and increasing the number of clamping needles can effectively decrease the peak value of the disengaging force (F_Nmax). The peak clamping force (F_Jmax) is approximately inversely proportional to the needle number, with the four-needle layout providing the most uniform force distribution. The force-measuring device developed in this study is functional, applicable, and versatile, offering a general force-measuring tool and a theoretical foundation for optimal seedling-picking device design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Equipment and Automation Technology in Farmland Production)

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