Water

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19 pages, 1865 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Under-Sink Activated Carbon Water Filters Effectively Remove Lead from Private Well Water for over Six Months

by Riley Mulhern and Jacqueline MacDonald Gibson

Water 2020, 12(12), 3584; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123584 - 21 Dec 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8496

Children who rely on private well water in the United States have been shown to be at greater risk of having elevated blood lead levels. Evidence-based solutions are needed to prevent drinking water lead exposure among private well users, but minimal data are [...] Read more.

Children who rely on private well water in the United States have been shown to be at greater risk of having elevated blood lead levels. Evidence-based solutions are needed to prevent drinking water lead exposure among private well users, but minimal data are available regarding the real-world effectiveness of available interventions like point-of-use water treatment for well water. In this study, under-sink activated carbon block water filters were tested for lead and other heavy metals removal in an eight-month longitudinal study in 17 homes relying on private wells. The device removed 98% of all influent lead for the entirety of the study, with all effluent lead levels less than 1 µg/L. Profile sampling in a subset of homes showed that the faucet fixture is a significant source of lead leaching where well water is corrosive. Flushing alone was not capable of reducing first-draw lead to levels below 1 µg/L, but the under-sink filter was found to increase the safety and effectiveness of faucet flushing. The results of this study can be used by individual well users and policymakers alike to improve decision-making around the use of under-sink point-of-use devices to prevent disproportionate lead exposures among private well users. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Supplying Safe Drinking Water in Rural Communities)

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14 pages, 2970 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Potable Water Quality and Identifying Areas of Waterborne Diarrheal and Fluorosis Health Risks Using Spatial Interpolation in Peshawar, Pakistan

by Mahmood Ahmad, Arshad Jamal, Xiao-Wei Tang, Mohammed A. Al-Sughaiyer, Hassan M. Al-Ahmadi and Feezan Ahmad

Water 2020, 12(8), 2163; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12082163 - 31 Jul 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4944

Abstract

Waterborne diseases have become one of the major public health concerns worldwide. This study is aimed to investigate and develop spatial distribution mapping of the potable water quality parameters in the city of Peshawar, Pakistan. A total of 108 water samples collected across [...] Read more.

Waterborne diseases have become one of the major public health concerns worldwide. This study is aimed to investigate and develop spatial distribution mapping of the potable water quality parameters in the city of Peshawar, Pakistan. A total of 108 water samples collected across the entire study area were subjected to physio-chemical and biological analyses. Tested parameters included pH, turbidity, temperature, fluoride concentration levels, and bacterial counts (faecal coliforms). Inverse distance weighting (IDW) interpolation in geographic information systems (GIS) was used for spatial analysis. Test results revealed that 48% of water samples had faecal coliforms count (per 100 mL) greater than World Health Organization (WHO) minimum limits, while 31% of samples had fluoride concentrations in excess of the WHO maximum guide values. Spatial distribution mapping was developed for faecal coliforms count and fluoride ion concentration using ArcGIS to highlight the high-risk settlements in the study area. Results showed that around 20% area under faecal coliforms and approximately 33% area based on fluoride concentrations fall under the need for treatment category. The pH and turbidity were found in compliance with WHO desirable limits. The sanitary inspection score significantly depicted that ineffective multi-barrier approaches consequently deteriorated the water quality at the consumer’s end. Findings from the present study shall be useful to policymakers for adopting necessary remedial measures before it severely affects public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Supplying Safe Drinking Water in Rural Communities)

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18 pages, 1955 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intermittent Water Supply Management, Household Adaptation, and Drinking Water Quality: A Comparative Study in Two Chinese Provinces

by Hongxing Li, Alasdair Cohen, Zheng Li, Shibo Lv, Zuan He, Li Wang and Xinyi Zhang

Water 2020, 12(5), 1361; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051361 - 12 May 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6713

Abstract

Intermittent water supply (IWS) is a relatively common phenomenon across the world as well as in rural and peri-urban areas across China, though there has been little IWS-focused research from China published to date. IWS consumers typically adopt a range of strategies to [...] Read more.

Intermittent water supply (IWS) is a relatively common phenomenon across the world as well as in rural and peri-urban areas across China, though there has been little IWS-focused research from China published to date. IWS consumers typically adopt a range of strategies to cope with insufficient water supply, poor drinking water quality, and associated inconveniences. In this study, we collected a range of data from small-scale utilities and households in two IWS systems and two continuous water supply (CWS) systems, as well as from comparison groups, in Shandong and Hubei provinces. Data collection included water quality testing, interviews, and surveys on behavioral adaptations, coping strategies, water-related health perceptions, and other metrics of consumer satisfaction. Overall, we found that the IWS coping strategies employed in northern China (Shandong) were associated with generally safe, but inconvenient, water access, whereas adaptation strategies observed in southern China (Hubei) appeared to improve convenience, but not water quality. Compared to the CWS comparison groups, we did not observe significant differences in water- and sanitation-related behaviors in the IWS groups, suggesting interventions to increase adaptive and protective behaviors at the household level might further improve safe water access for households living with IWS. Overall, although the water supply infrastructure in these study areas appeared to be in relatively good condition, in contrast to reported data on IWS systems in other countries, we observed multiple risk factors associated with the water treatment and distribution processes in these IWS systems. Among policy recommendations, our results suggest that the implementation of Water Safety Plans in China would likely improve the management of drinking water treatment and, by extension, safe drinking water supply under conditions of IWS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Supplying Safe Drinking Water in Rural Communities)

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15 pages, 3175 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Strontium and Vulnerability to Strontium in Private Drinking Water Systems in Virginia

by Veronica Scott, Luke Juran, Erin J. Ling, Brian Benham and Asa Spiller

Water 2020, 12(4), 1053; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12041053 - 8 Apr 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3558

Abstract

A total of 1.7 million Virginians rely on private drinking water (PDW) systems and 1.3 million of those people do not know their water quality. Because most Virginians who use PDW do not know the quality of that water and since strontium poses [...] Read more.

A total of 1.7 million Virginians rely on private drinking water (PDW) systems and 1.3 million of those people do not know their water quality. Because most Virginians who use PDW do not know the quality of that water and since strontium poses a public health risk, this study investigates sources of strontium in PDW in Virginia and identifies the areas and populations most vulnerable. Physical factors such as rock type, rock age, and fertilizer use have been linked to elevated strontium concentrations in drinking water. Social factors such as poverty, poor diet, and adolescence also increase social vulnerability to health impacts of strontium. Using water quality data from the Virginia Household Water Quality Program (VAHWQP) and statistical and spatial analyses, physical vulnerability was found to be highest in the Ridge and Valley province of Virginia where agricultural land use and geologic formations with high strontium concentrations (e.g., limestone, dolomite, sandstone, shale) are the dominant aquifer rocks. In terms of social vulnerability, households with high levels of strontium are more likely than the average VAHWQP participant to live in a food desert. This study provides information to help 1.7 million residents of Virginia, as well as populations in neighboring states, understand their risk of exposure to strontium in PDW. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Supplying Safe Drinking Water in Rural Communities)

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14 pages, 2016 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Springing for Safe Water: Drinking Water Quality and Source Selection in Central Appalachian Communities

by Hannah Patton, Leigh-Anne Krometis and Emily Sarver

Water 2020, 12(3), 888; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030888 - 21 Mar 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4626

Abstract

Issues surrounding water infrastructure, access, and quality are well documented in the Central Appalachian region of the United States. Even in cases where residents have in-home piped point-of-use (POU) water, some rely on alternative drinking water sources for daily needs—including water collection from [...] Read more.

Issues surrounding water infrastructure, access, and quality are well documented in the Central Appalachian region of the United States. Even in cases where residents have in-home piped point-of-use (POU) water, some rely on alternative drinking water sources for daily needs—including water collection from roadside springs. This effort aims to better understand and document spring usage in this region by identifying the factors that influence drinking water source selection and comparing household and spring water quality to Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) health-based and aesthetic contaminant recommendations. Households were recruited from communities surrounding known springs in three states (Kentucky, Virginia, and West Virginia). First- and second-draw, in-home POU tap water samples were collected from participating households and compared to samples collected from local springs on the same day. Samples were analyzed for fecal indicator bacteria and inorganic ions. Study participants completed surveys to document perceptions of household drinking water and typical usage. The majority of survey participants (82.6%) did not trust their home tap water due to aesthetic issues. Water quality results suggested that fecal indicator bacteria were more common in spring water, while several metallic ions were recovered in higher concentrations from household samples. These observations highlight that health risks and perceptions may be different between sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Supplying Safe Drinking Water in Rural Communities)

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18 pages, 1203 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Social Innovations as A Response to Dispossession: Community Water Management in View of Socio-Metabolic Rift in Chile

by Ilka Roose and Alexander Panez

Water 2020, 12(2), 566; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020566 - 19 Feb 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4510

Abstract

Chile has gone through more than four decades of neoliberalism, inaugurated by the civil–military dictatorship (1973–1990). One of the central aspects of the current model is the neoliberal exploitation of natural commons such as land, water and minerals. In some territories, such as [...] Read more.

Chile has gone through more than four decades of neoliberalism, inaugurated by the civil–military dictatorship (1973–1990). One of the central aspects of the current model is the neoliberal exploitation of natural commons such as land, water and minerals. In some territories, such as the central-north province of Petorca, the accelerated extractivism of this period has disrupted the reproduction of life cycles, leading to disruptive influences in the form of "socio-metabolic fractures". In this article we highlight aspects of this process as it relates to rural community water management. Based on literature and media analysis we first describe the case of Petorca from a political, ecological point of view. We then use the concept of institutional bricolage (ad hoc construction) to analyze qualitative interviews, allowing us to establish a more in-depth insight into the organizational structures of Petorca. Although we point to the weakening of community organization, we highlight in this article how, in a scenario of profound dispossession, as is taking place in the province of Petorca, ongoing experiences of community organization continue to emerge and challenge the impacts of the socio-metabolic rift. Thereby we shed light upon the often less visible structures of power and the processes of meaning and legitimacy within these social innovations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Supplying Safe Drinking Water in Rural Communities)

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12 pages, 404 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Meanings of Water: Socio-Cultural Perceptions of Solar Disinfected (SODIS) Drinking Water in Bolivia and Implications for its Uptake

by Néstor Nuño Martínez, Joan Muela Ribera, Susanna Hausmann-Muela, Myriam Cevallos, Stella María Hartinger, Andri Christen and Daniel Mäusezahl

Water 2020, 12(2), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020442 - 6 Feb 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3807

Abstract

Solar disinfection (SODIS) of drinking water is a cost-effective household water treatment (HWT) method. Despite its simplicity of use, evidence suggest that SODIS water uptake remains lower than implementers planned. In this paper, we investigate socio-cultural factors associated with SODIS water uptake in [...] Read more.

Solar disinfection (SODIS) of drinking water is a cost-effective household water treatment (HWT) method. Despite its simplicity of use, evidence suggest that SODIS water uptake remains lower than implementers planned. In this paper, we investigate socio-cultural factors associated with SODIS water uptake in rural Andean Bolivia. We conducted 28 semi-structured in-depth interviews and six focus group discussions within the framework of a community randomised trial to assess the uptake of SODIS water in the Bolivian Andes. Participants argued that SODIS does not produce an attractive type of drinking water despite acknowledging that SODIS represents a simple, safe, low-cost, and easy method of preparing safe drinking water. Attitudes towards SODIS water reflected local interpretations of water, health, and illness. The taste of SODIS water, the invisibility of water-borne pathogens, and habituation to untreated water represented the main barriers to SODIS water uptake. Alternative culturally adapted SODIS promotional campaigns (e.g., using herbs and additives to improve SODIS water taste) can increase its perceived desirability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Supplying Safe Drinking Water in Rural Communities)

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14 pages, 1325 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Factors Affecting Consumption of Water from a Newly Introduced Safe Drinking Water System: The Case of Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) Systems in Bangladesh

by Muhammad Badrul Hasan, Peter P. J. Driessen, Shantanu Majumder, Annelies Zoomers and Frank van Laerhoven

Water 2019, 11(12), 2459; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122459 - 23 Nov 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 8137

Abstract

Rather than committing exclusively to one drinking water option, households in Bangladesh often use a portfolio of sources that, in varying ways, to varying extents satisfy one or more out of several preferences they hold with regard to their drinking water. What happens [...] Read more.

Rather than committing exclusively to one drinking water option, households in Bangladesh often use a portfolio of sources that, in varying ways, to varying extents satisfy one or more out of several preferences they hold with regard to their drinking water. What happens if a new option is added to that mix? In communities of Bangladesh’ Southwestern coastal region where a new option (managed aquifer recharge, or MAR) was recently introduced, we observe variation in the extent to which this source contributes to satisfying households’ drinking water needs. Using multiple linear regression (n = 636 households), we found that perceived risk, costs, taste, self-efficacy, and form and intensity of competition with alternative drinking water options matter significantly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges in Supplying Safe Drinking Water in Rural Communities)

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