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Geological Hazards: Landslides Induced by Rainfall and Infiltration

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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Hydrogeology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 February 2024) | Viewed by 15307

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Zizheng Guo

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Guest Editor

1. School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
2. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya Spain, Barcelona, Spain
Interests: geohazard; landslide; monitoring and early warning; spatial modelling; mechanism; risk assessment; land use and land cover; rainfall
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Samuele Segoni

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Guest Editor

Department of Earth Sciences, University of Firenze, Firenze, Italy
Interests: prediction and mapping of landslide hazards; physically based models for the triggering of shallow landslides; landslide susceptibility maps; rainfall thresholds for landslide triggering; regional-scale landslide early warning systems; civil protection; land planning; landslide risk assessment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Yixiang Song

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Civil Engineering and Transportation, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China
Interests: geohazard; landslide; numerical simulation; rainfall; infiltration; mechanism; experiment; seepage

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Landslides are one of the most common and catastrophic geological hazards worldwide and cause considerable fatalities and economic losses on a yearly basis. Hence, understanding landslide evolution and assessing potential consequences are essential tasks for stakeholders and research institutions. Benefitting from the development of computer power and modern sensing technology, new techniques for both monitoring and numerical modelling of landslides have evolved during the last decades.

Landslides can be (re)activated by different natural and anthropic processes. The most common is water infiltration, mainly caused by rainfall, but also possible because of water impoundment, snowmelt, irrigation, damaged water pipes and so on.

This Special Issue aims to collect and present relevant and timely advances on landslide hazards caused by water infiltration. Potential topics include but are not limited to the following:

Hydrological and geotechnical monitoring of rainfall/infiltration-induced landslides;
Rainfall infiltration and triggering mechanism for slope instability;
Rainfall threshold and early warning system of landslides;
Landslide susceptibility and hazard assessment at a regional scale;
Numerical simulation for landslide initiation and run-out analysis;
Quantitative landslide risk assessment;
Landslide risk management and mitigation techniques.

Dr. Zizheng Guo
Dr. Samuele Segoni
Dr. Yixiang Song
Guest Editors

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Keywords

rainfall-induced landslides
infiltration
numerical modelling
monitoring
early warning system
susceptibility
risk assessment
mechanism
GIS

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 3729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flood and Landslide Damage in a Mediterranean Region: Identification of Descriptive Rainfall Indices Using a 40-Year Historical Series

by Olga Petrucci and Roberto Coscarelli

Water 2023, 15(21), 3826; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213826 - 1 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1193

Abstract

In the future, as a result of global warming, it is possible that rainfall could become more intense and frequent. This could lead to more frequent triggering of damaging phenomena such as floods and landslides (named as a whole damaging hydrogeological events, DHE), and, consequently, to the increase of their impacts on territories, especially in regions where uncontrolled urban sprawl represents a factor that can exacerbate the problem. The analysis of a large quantity of information about both triggering rainfall and triggered phenomena can help to comprehend relationships between triggering precipitation and its related impacts. In this paper, to facilitate the investigation of the relationships between large and complex datasets concerning both rainfall and rainfall-related damage, we propose an index-based approach, illustrated by its application to the Calabria region (Southern Italy). In particular, this manuscript presents some results from a preliminary investigation aimed at assessing the “better” index to describe DHE. Five rainfall indices (RIs) were tested and five composite rainfall indices (CRIs), combinations of two or more RIs, are proposed. We calculated the RIs and the CRIs by means of 1,300,000 daily data registered in the observation period 1980–2020. The CRIs showed the best relationships with the data of damaging hydrogeological events (DHEs). Particularly, better results were obtained with landslides data than with floods data, perhaps due to the hydraulic characteristics of the Calabria rivers, affected by flash floods mainly influenced by very intense hourly rainfall events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Hazards: Landslides Induced by Rainfall and Infiltration)

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13 pages, 3939 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Landslide Prediction in Mountainous Terrain Using Remote Sensing and GIS: A Case Study of Al-Hada Road, Makkah Province, Saudi Arabia

by Talal Alharbi and Abdelbaset S. El-Sorogy

Water 2023, 15(21), 3771; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15213771 - 28 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1285

Abstract

In Saudi Arabia’s mountainous regions, debris flow is a natural hazard that poses a threat to infrastructure and human lives. To assess the potential zones of landslide in the Al-Hada Road area, a study was conducted using Geographic Information System (GIS) analysis and remote sensing (RS) data. The study took into account various factors that could affect landslides, such as drainage density, elevation, slope, precipitation, land use, geology, soil, and aspect. The study also included a field trip to identify 11 previous landslide events that were influenced by high-density drainage and slope. The study utilized weighted overlay analysis in a GIS environment to create a map indicating the potential landslide zones in the area. According to the analysis, low-risk areas cover 35,354,062.5 square meters, medium-risk areas cover 60,646,250 square meters, and high-risk zones cover an area of 8,633,281 square meters. This result was verified using the locations of previous landslide events. The study’s findings can help planners and decision-makers identify and prioritize areas for mitigation and prevention measures. Additionally, the study contributes to understanding landslide hazards in arid and semi-arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Hazards: Landslides Induced by Rainfall and Infiltration)

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24 pages, 8164 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Seepage Evolution Characteristics in Undisturbed Loess under Dynamic Preferential Flow: New Insights from X-ray Computed Tomography

by Xin Li, Yang Li, Qiang Li, Xiaozhou Zhang, Xuechen Shi, Yudong Lu, Shaoxiong Zhang and Liting Zhang

Water 2023, 15(16), 2963; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15162963 - 17 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1282

Abstract

Preferential flow is widely developed in varieties of voids (such as macropores and fissures) in loess areas, affecting slope hydrology and stability and even leading to geological disasters. However, the model of seepage evolution with dynamic preferential flow is not clear, which obstructs the disclosure of the mechanism of landslides induced by the preferential flow. This study aimed to capture the seepage and occurrence status of water in loess voids, explain the variability characteristics of the loess pore structure, and reveal the seepage evolution model of dynamic preferential flow. Preferential infiltration experiments were conducted by combining X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT) nondestructive detection with contrast techniques under dynamic seepage conditions. Three-dimensional (3D) visualized reconstruction, digital image correlation (DIC), image processing, and quantitative analyses were performed in AVIZO 2019.1, including two-dimensional (2D) and 3D characteristics of preferential flow distribution and macropore changing, dynamic variation of the porosity, pore number, volume, dip angle, and connectivity. Results showed that (1) preferential flow exists under saturated and unsaturated conditions in loess with strong uniformity and anisotropy; (2) preferential flow not only migrates into existing connected macropores, but also connects the original isolated pores into channels and forms larger percolation groups of contrast medium under the gradually increased high pressure; (3) the seepage develops with the evolution model of ‘preferential flow–piston flow–preferential piston mixture flow–piston flow’ in the dynamic process. The new insights into the characteristics of the seepage evolution in undisturbed loess under dynamic preferential flow will enrich the understanding of loess seepage and provided an important reference for future research on the slope instability of the loess induced by preferential flow. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Hazards: Landslides Induced by Rainfall and Infiltration)

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22 pages, 10735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of Cost-Effective and Sustainable Treatments of Old Landslides Adapted to the Moroccan Road Network: A Case Study of Regional Road R410 Crossing the Rifan Structural Domain

by Omar Inabi, Mustapha Attou, Mostafa Benzaazoua and Mohamed Qachar

Water 2023, 15(13), 2423; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15132423 - 30 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1583

Abstract

The Moroccan road network is susceptible to multiple landslides annually, particularly in the northern regions due to high rainfall and specific geology. These events result in significant economic and social negative consequences, highlighting the need for sustainable and cost-effective solutions for network maintenance. This study outlines the methodology employed in addressing the issues within the RR410 regional road (Rifain region of Morocco), which entailed a thorough examination of the malfunctions, specific surveys, laboratory testing, and problem modeling. By incorporating long-term test-derived shear strength parameters, the model indicated that the road platform was stable, and back analysis using TALREN 4 software allows for model calibration. At kilometric point 23, using earthwork-based solutions (e.g., purging and replacing the base layer, employing granular water-insensitive substitution material) was found to provide a sustainable alternative to the expensive reinforced concrete-based solutions commonly used. Furthermore, these solutions contributed to the use of environmentally friendly and locally sourced materials. Road alignment rectification to anchor the platform in suitable soil was also an effective solution, as demonstrated at kilometric point 48. Additionally, enhancing the drainage and sanitation infrastructure, such as installing draining trenches, spurs, and reinforcing existing water structures, is a crucial aspect of addressing most landslides in the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Hazards: Landslides Induced by Rainfall and Infiltration)

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15 pages, 5103 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Analysis of Landslide Risk Using the Change in the Volumetric Water Content Gradient in the Soil Layer Per Unit Time of Effective Cumulative Rainfall

by Man-Il Kim and Seung-Jae Lee

Water 2023, 15(9), 1699; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15091699 - 27 Apr 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1337

Abstract

The topographical characteristics of South Korea are coupled with heavy rain and typhoons concentrated from July to September, which take up two-thirds of the country’s annual precipitation, causing substantial damage from slope failures, landslides, debris flows, and other mountain disasters. This study uses the Land-Atmosphere Modeling Package (LAMP) data to study the area, which has been affected by numerous landslides in the past. Specifically, to analyze the likelihood of slope failure, this study simulates the rainfall events in the area at the time of the landslides as well as changes in the volumetric water content in the soil layer and uses the changes in the volumetric water content per unit time, which are affected by the effective cumulative rainfall within the soil layer. To that end, this study assesses the risk of landslides based on how rainwater infiltration in the saturation depth changes the saturation depth ratio and compares the results with the landslide spots in the past. Moreover, this study analyzes the landslide risk by applying the saturation depth ratio (

H (t)

) to an infinite slope stability analysis model. The landslide threshold proposed in this study was obtained by analyzing the rainfall events that caused the landslides in the study area using the LAMP model. It can then be concluded that, when compared with the spatial information on the previous landslides, if the change in the volumetric water content per unit time during the first and second rainfall events is 0.7, a landslide may occur. These results indicated that the landslide risk increases the volumetric water content in the soil layer, along with the congruence between past landslide risk points and spatial landslide risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Hazards: Landslides Induced by Rainfall and Infiltration)

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17 pages, 15450 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Deformation and Instability Characteristics of Fractured Landslides during Typhoon-Triggered Rainstorms: Observations from an In Situ Field Experiment

by Taili Zhang, Jianbo Wu and Qiang Sun

Water 2023, 15(8), 1499; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15081499 - 11 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1547

Abstract

Fractures are the dominant conditions for rainfall infiltration into slopes, which can aggravate the instability of landslides. However, few studies have been conducted to analyze in detail the instability and deformation characteristics of creeping landslides with fractures. In view of this, this study investigated a landslide in Fu’ao Village, Wencheng County, Zhejiang Province in China to determine how fractures affect landslide deformation and instability during heavy rainfall through an in situ simulation experiment. In the experiment, three consecutive days of rainfall were set up based on Typhoon Megi in 2016, and two conditions were simulated, namely, rainfall + water filling fractures and rainfall + filled fractures (also referred to as the first and second conditions, respectively). The changes in the volumetric water content (VWC), pore water pressure (PWP), and deep displacement of the landslide at a depth of less than 5 m under the two conditions were observed using field monitoring instruments. The simulation results were as follows: (1) The volumetric water content of the shallow soil showed a more sensitive time-varying response to rainfall, while that of the soil at a depth of more than 200 cm showed a lagged response to rainfall, with a lag of about 10 h, which decreased significantly in the case of the unfilled fractures; (2) Under the first condition, the pore water pressure at different depths showed almost the same changing amplitude of 5 kPa or less. Under the second condition, the pore water pressure increased significantly with depth during the rainfall, with the changing amplitude reaching 30 kPa; (3) The displacement of the borehole equipped with the inclinometers near the front of the slope was higher than that at the borehole equipped with the inclinometers near the rear of the slope. The displacement under the first condition was up to 6 mm, which was significantly greater than that under the second condition. Therefore, fractures have significant effects on the instability of landslides induced by typhoon-triggered rainstorms, and one important measure to prevent and control this type of landslides is to fill fractures in the landslides in time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Hazards: Landslides Induced by Rainfall and Infiltration)

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15 pages, 4151 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Definition of Rainfall Thresholds for Landslides Using Unbalanced Datasets: Two Case Studies in Shaanxi Province, China

by Sen Zhang, Gaetano Pecoraro, Qigang Jiang and Michele Calvello

Water 2023, 15(6), 1058; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15061058 - 10 Mar 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2064

Abstract

The Lueyang and Xunyang counties in the Shaanxi province (China) are highly susceptible to rainfall-induced landslides. Rainfall thresholds are the most used tool to predict the occurrence of rainfall-induced landslides over large areas. However, the definition of robust thresholds may be difficult for unbalanced datasets, for which the number of non-landslide observations is much higher than the number of landslide observations. This study aims at defining adequate rainfall thresholds for the two study areas using landslide datasets that are strongly unbalanced in terms of occurrences vs. non-occurrences. Two types of rainfall thresholds are determined using a frequentist method at several non-exceedance and exceedance probabilities, separately considering rainfall events responsible for landslides (positive thresholds) and rainfall events not responsible for landslides (negative thresholds). The comparison between the two sets of thresholds shows that the method based on non-triggering events allows defining rainfall thresholds characterized by lower uncertainties and a better performance than the ones defined considering the triggering events, in both the study areas. In particular, the best-performing thresholds are the negative threshold defined at 15% exceedance probability for the Lueyang county and the negative threshold defined at 20% exceedance probability for the Xunyang county. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Hazards: Landslides Induced by Rainfall and Infiltration)

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22 pages, 16806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Insight from a Physical-Based Model for the Triggering Mechanism of Loess Landslides Induced by the 2013 Tianshui Heavy Rainfall Event

by Siyuan Ma, Xiaoyi Shao, Chong Xu and Yueren Xu

Water 2023, 15(3), 443; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15030443 - 22 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1781

Abstract

Rainfall-induced landslides pose a significant threat to human life, destroy highways and railways, and cause farmland degradation in the Loess Plateau. From 19 June 2013 to 26 July 2013, continuous and heavy rainfall events occurred in the Tianshui area, Gansu Province. This strong rainfall process included four short-term serious rainfall events and long-term intermittent rainfall, triggering many shallow loess landslides. To improve our understanding of this rainfall process as the triggering mechanism of the loess landslides, we conducted the physical-based spatiotemporal prediction of rainfall-induced landslides. By utilizing precipitation data recorded every 12 h from the rain gauge stations and 51 soil samples from within a 50 km radius of the study area, we predicted 1000 physical-based model-calculated pictures of potential landslides, and the slope failure probability (Pf) of the study area was obtained by Monte Carlo simulations. The model was validated by the actual landslide data of the 2013 heavy rainfall event, and the effects of the precipitation process and the trigger mechanism on the landslides were discussed. The results showed that the fourth rainfall event had the best prediction ability, while the third event had the second-best prediction ability. There was a solid linear link between the antecedent precipitation (P_a) and the predicted landslide area (P_ls) based on the fitting relationship, indicating that antecedent rainfall may play a significant role in the occurrence of landslides in the region. By comparing the distribution of the predicted results of the four heavy rainfall events with the actual landslide, we observed that the first two rainfall processes may not have been the main reason for slope failure, contributing only to prepare for the landslides in the later period. The superposition of the fourth and third rainfall events finally determined the spatial distribution characteristics of the landslide induced by the 2013 heavy rainfall event. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Hazards: Landslides Induced by Rainfall and Infiltration)

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15 pages, 5450 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Empirical Approaches for Fast Landslide Hazard Management: The Case Study of Theilly (Italy)

by Samuele Segoni, Francesco Barbadori, Alessio Gatto and Nicola Casagli

Water 2022, 14(21), 3485; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213485 - 31 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1588

Abstract

Landslide hazard management usually requires time-consuming campaigns of data acquisition, elaboration, and modeling. However, in the post-emergency phase management, time is a factor, and simpler but faster methods of analysis are needed to support decisions even in the short-term. This paper analyzes the Theilly landslide (Western Italian Alps), which was recently affected by a series of reactivations. While some instrumental campaigns are being carried out to support the design of protection measures, simple tools are also needed to assess the hazard of future reactivations and to evaluate the possibility of damming the torrent at the footslope. Therefore, state-of-the-art empirical methods were used and customized for the specific case study: a set of intensity–duration rainfall thresholds depicting increasing hazard levels was defined to monitor and forecast possible reactivations, while a methodology based on hydro-morphometric indices was applied to the case of study, to assess the possible evolution scenarios (landslide that does not dam the river, formation of a stable dam, formation of an unstable dam), based on the landslide volume. The proposed empirical methodologies have the advantage of requiring only ready-available input data and quick elaborations, thus allowing the rapid set up of tools that could be used for hazard management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geological Hazards: Landslides Induced by Rainfall and Infiltration)

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