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Water
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Water Quality in Buildings
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Water Quality in Buildings

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water and One Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2021) | Viewed by 24461

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Patrick Gurian

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
Interests: risk analysis of environmental and infrastructure systems; environmental standard setting; Bayesian statistical modelling; community outreach and environmental health
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Rajveer Singh

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
Interests: water quality and public health; exposure assessment and risk analysis of environmental systems; fate and transport of chemical and biological agents in the environment; environmental geochemistry and biotechnology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Water quality in building plumbing can deteriorate because of many different chemical and biological processes in the bulk water, and from interaction with pipe surfaces. This situation may lead to opportunistic pathogen growth (i.e., Legionella pneumophila, non-tuberculous mycobacteria, etc.), metal corrosion (i.e., lead, copper, etc.), and disinfection by-product (DBP) formation (i.e., THM, HAA, etc.). The aim of this Special Issue is to bring together cutting edge research addressing these issues, and to provide a platform to synthesize the current state of the knowledge base. Submissions are invited for peer-review publication, covering all aspects of water quality in built environments, which include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Bench- or field-scale experimental, analytical, or theoretical evaluation of factors responsible for water quality deterioration in buildings and other built environments
  • Exposure and risk analysis to human health in relation to water quality in built environments
  • Critical reviews or syntheses of the existing knowledge base from building water quality literature and guidance documents
  • Other innovative ideas relevant to water quality in built environments are also welcome.

Dr. Patrick Gurian
Dr. Rajveer Singh
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Legionella
  • non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM)
  • opportunistic premise plumbing pathogens (OPPPs)
  • disinfection by-products (DBPs)
  • building water quality
  • water age
  • residual decay
  • trihalomethanes (THMs)
  • halo acetic acid (HAAs)
  • risk analysis

Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 1318 KiB  
Article
Practitioners’ Perspective on the Prevalent Water Quality Management Practices for Legionella Control in Large Buildings in the United States
by Rajveer Singh, Deepika Chauhan, Alanna Fogarty, Md Rasheduzzaman and Patrick L. Gurian
Water 2022, 14(4), 663; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14040663 - 21 Feb 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3814
Abstract
Managing building water systems is complicated by the need to maintain hot water temperatures high enough to control the growth of Legionella spp. while minimizing the risk of scalding. This study assessed water quality management practices in large buildings in the United States. [...] Read more.
Managing building water systems is complicated by the need to maintain hot water temperatures high enough to control the growth of Legionella spp. while minimizing the risk of scalding. This study assessed water quality management practices in large buildings in the United States. Surveys conducted with building water quality managers found that more than 85% of buildings have hot water temperatures that are consistent with scald risk mitigation guidelines (i.e., <122 °F/50 °C). However, nearly two thirds and three quarters of buildings do not comply with the common temperature guidance for opportunistic pathogen control, i.e., water heater setpoint > 140 °F (60 °C) and recirculation loop > 122 °F (50 °C), respectively; median values for both setpoint and recirculation loop temperatures are 10 °F (6 °C) or more below temperatures recommended for opportunistic pathogen control. These observations suggest that many buildings are prone to Legionella spp. risk. The study also found that 27% of buildings do not comply with guidelines for time to equilibrium hot water temperature, over 33% fail to monitor temperature in the recirculation loop, more than 70% fail to replace or disinfect showerheads, more than 40% lack a written management plan, and only a minority conduct any monitoring of residual disinfectant levels or microbiological quality. Given the rise in Legionellosis infections in recent years, coupled with highlighted water quality concerns because of prolonged water stagnation in plumbing, such as in buildings closed due to COVID-19, current management practices, which appear to be focused on scald risk, may need to be broadened to include greater attention to control of opportunistic pathogens. To accomplish this, there is a need for formal training and resources for facility managers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Buildings)
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19 pages, 1622 KiB  
Article
Prediction of Children’s Blood Lead Levels from Exposure to Lead in Schools’ Drinking Water—A Case Study in Tennessee, USA
by Dave DeSimone, Donya Sharafoddinzadeh and Maryam Salehi
Water 2020, 12(6), 1826; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12061826 - 26 Jun 2020
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3671
Abstract
Lead (Pb) exposure can delay children’s mental development and cause behavioral disorders and IQ deficits. With children spending a significant portion of their time at schools, it is critical to investigate the lead concentration in schools’ drinking water to prevent children’s exposure. The [...] Read more.
Lead (Pb) exposure can delay children’s mental development and cause behavioral disorders and IQ deficits. With children spending a significant portion of their time at schools, it is critical to investigate the lead concentration in schools’ drinking water to prevent children’s exposure. The objectives of this work were to predict students’ geometric mean (GM) blood lead levels (BLLs), the fractions of at-risk students (those with BLLs > 5 μg/dL), and the total number of at-risk students in one Tennessee school district. School drinking water lead concentration data collected in 2019 were input into the Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic (IEUBK) model and the Bowers’ model to predict BLLs for elementary school students and secondary school students, respectively. Sensitivity analyses were conducted for both models. Drinking water concentrations were qualitatively compared with data collected in 2017. Two scenarios were evaluated for each model to provide upper and median estimates. The weighted GM BLL upper and median estimates for elementary school students were 2.35 μg/dL and 0.99 μg/dL, respectively. This equated to an upper estimate of 1300 elementary school students (5.8%) and a median estimate of 140 elementary school students (0.6%) being at risk of elevated BLLs. Similarly, the weighted GM BLL upper and median estimates for secondary school students were 2.99 μg/dL and 1.53 μg/dL, respectively, and equated to an upper estimate of 6900 secondary school students (13.6%) and a median estimate of 300 secondary school students (0.6%) being at risk of elevated BLLs. Drinking water remediation efforts are recommended for schools exhibiting water lead concentrations greater than 15 μg/L. Site-specific soil lead concentration data are recommended since the IEUBK was deemed sensitive to soil lead concentrations. For this reason, soil lead remediation may have a greater impact on lowering children’s BLLs than drinking water lead remediation. Remediation efforts are especially vital at elementary schools to reduce the population’s baseline BLL and thus the BLL projected by Bowers’ model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Buildings)
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17 pages, 1407 KiB  
Article
Managing Water Quality in Premise Plumbing: Subject Matter Experts’ Perspectives and a Systematic Review of Guidance Documents
by Rajveer Singh, Kerry A. Hamilton, Md Rasheduzzaman, Zhao Yang, Saurajyoti Kar, Angelita Fasnacht, Sheldon V. Masters and Patrick L. Gurian
Water 2020, 12(2), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020347 - 26 Jan 2020
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4744
Abstract
Although many guidance documents have been developed to inform the design and operation of building water systems to ensure safe water quality, there is a lack of consensus on some topics. This study interviewed 22 subject matter experts (SMEs) to identify topics of [...] Read more.
Although many guidance documents have been developed to inform the design and operation of building water systems to ensure safe water quality, there is a lack of consensus on some topics. This study interviewed 22 subject matter experts (SMEs) to identify topics of concern for managing water quality in buildings and compared SME views with information available on these topics in 15 systematically screened important guidance documents. The study found 18 design and 11 operational topics as critical for managing water quality in buildings. No one guidance document addressed all these topics, suggesting that a compendium of available guidance is needed. SMEs most frequently recommended temperature and residual disinfectant measurements as good parameters for monitoring overall building water quality. Both SME and guidance document recommendations for temperature for controlling opportunistic pathogen growth were reasonably consistent with water heater setpoint >60 °C. However, hot water temperature recommendations varied between 50 and 55 °C for other locations (i.e., the water temperature at the tap or end of the return loop). On the contrary, recommendations for disinfectant residual levels (0.2–2.0 mg/L), flushing frequency (1–14 days), and allowable time for hot water to reach the tap (10–60 s) were not consistent. While this study was able to reconcile diverging views on some of the water quality topics, such as identifying common guidance for water heater set point to at least 60 °C, it also highlights lack of definitive guidance on other critical topics, such as residual level, flushing frequency, hot water time to tap, and the use of thermostatic mixing valves, indicating that these are significant knowledge gaps that need further investigation. The study concludes that there is a need for developing evidence-based guidance, particularly on the topics where expert opinions diverged. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Buildings)
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Review

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19 pages, 2843 KiB  
Review
Feeding the Building Plumbing Microbiome: The Importance of Synthetic Polymeric Materials for Biofilm Formation and Management
by Lisa Neu and Frederik Hammes
Water 2020, 12(6), 1774; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12061774 - 22 Jun 2020
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5369
Abstract
The environmental conditions in building plumbing systems differ considerably from the larger distribution system and, as a consequence, uncontrolled changes in the drinking water microbiome through selective growth can occur. In this regard, synthetic polymeric plumbing materials are of particular relevance, since they [...] Read more.
The environmental conditions in building plumbing systems differ considerably from the larger distribution system and, as a consequence, uncontrolled changes in the drinking water microbiome through selective growth can occur. In this regard, synthetic polymeric plumbing materials are of particular relevance, since they leach assimilable organic carbon that can be utilized for bacterial growth. Here, we discuss the complexity of building plumbing in relation to microbial ecology, especially in the context of low-quality synthetic polymeric materials (i.e., plastics) and highlight the major knowledge gaps in the field. We furthermore show how knowledge on the interaction between material properties (e.g., carbon migration) and microbiology (e.g., growth rate) allows for the quantification of initial biofilm development in buildings. Hence, research towards a comprehensive understanding of these processes and interactions will enable the implementation of knowledge-based management strategies. We argue that the exclusive use of high-quality materials in new building plumbing systems poses a straightforward strategy towards managing the building plumbing microbiome. This can be achieved through comprehensive material testing and knowledge sharing between all stakeholders including architects, planners, plumbers, material producers, home owners, and scientists. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Buildings)
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24 pages, 2545 KiB  
Review
Nitrification in Premise Plumbing: A Review
by Tyler C. Bradley, Charles N. Haas and Christopher M. Sales
Water 2020, 12(3), 830; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030830 - 15 Mar 2020
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5822
Abstract
Nitrification is a major issue that utilities must address if they utilize chloramines as a secondary disinfectant. Nitrification is the oxidation of free ammonia to nitrite which is then further oxidized to nitrate. Free ammonia is found in drinking water systems as a [...] Read more.
Nitrification is a major issue that utilities must address if they utilize chloramines as a secondary disinfectant. Nitrification is the oxidation of free ammonia to nitrite which is then further oxidized to nitrate. Free ammonia is found in drinking water systems as a result of overfeeding at the water treatment plant (WTP) or as a result of the decomposition of monochloramine. Premise plumbing systems (i.e., the plumbing systems within buildings and homes) are characterized by irregular usage patterns, high water age, high temperature, and high surface-to-volume ratios. These characteristics create ideal conditions for increased chloramine decay, bacterial growth, and nitrification. This review discusses factors within premise plumbing that are likely to influence nitrification, and vice versa. Factors influencing, or influenced by, nitrification include the rate at which chloramine residual decays, microbial regrowth, corrosion of pipe materials, and water conservation practices. From a regulatory standpoint, the greatest impact of nitrification within premise plumbing is likely to be a result of increased lead levels during Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) sampling. Other drinking water regulations related to nitrifying parameters are monitored in a manner to reduce premise plumbing impacts. One way to potentially control nitrification in premise plumbing systems is through the development of building management plans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Buildings)
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