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Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Advanced Composites".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2021) | Viewed by 135474

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Francesca Lionetto

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Engineering for Innovation, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
Interests: material characterization; ultrasonic wave propagation; polymer rheology; curing kinetics of thermosetting matrices; polymer matrix composites; polymer composite processing and joining; heat transfer modelling; polymer based nanocomposites; hybrid welding of dissimilar materials; micro and nanoplastics; sustainability
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The current demand for lightweight and high-performance structures leads to increasing applications of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers, made possible by novel production methods, automation with repeatable qualities, reduced cost of carbon fibers, out of autoclave processes like resin transfer molding and resin infusion technologies, re-use of waste fibers, development in preform technology, high-performance fast curing resins, etc.

Moreover, the diffusion of multi-material design, where metallic and non-metallic materials are used together to fabricate the same component, has driven research towards efficient joining technologies of metals to carbon fiber reinforced composites. More recently, the introduction of nanofillers into conventional carbon fiber reinforced polymers offers the opportunity for combining potential benefits of nanoscale reinforcement with well-established fibrous composites to create multiscale or hierarchical composites, characterized by enhanced structural and functional properties.

This Special Issue aims to present recent advances in carbon fiber reinforced polymers, focusing on the emerging trends, both in carbon fibers and matrix development and in composite manufacturing technologies. Original articles and review papers will deal with the following themes, without being limited to them: Processing and characterization of both fibers (from low-cost precursors or re-use of waste or recycled carbon) and polymer matrices, microstructure evaluation, physical and structural characterization and testing, optimization of properties and processes including calculations, simulation of properties over length-scales and novel applications of carbon fibers reinforced polymers. Contributions on multiscale composites, advanced manufacturing processes, novel joining methods, cutting-edge joining and assembly processes are also encouraged. Studies on recycled carbon fibers, end of use solutions, life cycle assessment and durability of carbon fiber reinforced polymers, are also welcome.

I kindly invite you to submit a manuscript for this Special Issue. Full papers, communications, and reviews are all welcome.

Assist. Prof. Dr. Francesca Lionetto
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • carbon fibers
  • thermosetting resins
  • thermoplastic matrix composites
  • manufacturing technologies
  • joining
  • multiscale composites

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Editorial

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5 pages, 196 KiB  
Editorial
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers
by Francesca Lionetto
Materials 2021, 14(19), 5545; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195545 - 24 Sep 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2962
Abstract
The current demand for lightweight and high-performance structures leads to increasing applications of carbon fiber reinforced polymers, which is also made possible by novel production methods, automation with repeatable quality, the reduced cost of carbon fibers, out of autoclave processes such as resin [...] Read more.
The current demand for lightweight and high-performance structures leads to increasing applications of carbon fiber reinforced polymers, which is also made possible by novel production methods, automation with repeatable quality, the reduced cost of carbon fibers, out of autoclave processes such as resin transfer molding and resin infusion technologies, the re-use of waste fibers, development in preform technology, high-performance, fast-curing resins, etc [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)

Research

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17 pages, 5134 KiB  
Article
Experimental and Numerical Study of Vacuum Resin Infusion of Stiffened Carbon Fiber Reinforced Panels
by Francesca Lionetto, Anna Moscatello, Giuseppe Totaro, Marco Raffone and Alfonso Maffezzoli
Materials 2020, 13(21), 4800; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13214800 - 28 Oct 2020
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3100
Abstract
Liquid resin infusion processes are becoming attractive for aeronautic applications as an alternative to conventional autoclave-based processes. They still present several challenges, which can be faced only with an accurate simulation able to optimize the process parameters and to replace traditional time-consuming trial-and-error [...] Read more.
Liquid resin infusion processes are becoming attractive for aeronautic applications as an alternative to conventional autoclave-based processes. They still present several challenges, which can be faced only with an accurate simulation able to optimize the process parameters and to replace traditional time-consuming trial-and-error procedures. This paper presents an experimentally validated model to simulate the resin infusion process of an aeronautical component by accounting for the anisotropic permeability of the reinforcement and the chemophysical and rheological changes in the crosslinking resin. The input parameters of the model have been experimentally determined. The experimental work has been devoted to the study of the curing kinetics and chemorheological behavior of the thermosetting epoxy matrix and to the determination of both the in-plane and out-of-plane permeability of two carbon fiber preforms using an ultrasonic-based method, recently developed by the authors. The numerical simulation of the resin infusion process involved the modeling of the resin flow through the reinforcement, the heat exchange in the part and within the mold, and the crosslinking reaction of the resin. The time necessary to fill the component has been measured by an optical fiber-based equipment and compared with the simulation results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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13 pages, 1183 KiB  
Article
Research on Anisotropic Viscoelastic Constitutive Model of Compression Molding for CFRP
by Jiuming Xie, Shiyu Wang, Zhongbao Cui, Jin Wu and Xuejun Zhou
Materials 2020, 13(10), 2277; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13102277 - 15 May 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1980
Abstract
The carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) is a mainstream material for lightweight products from the end of the 20th century to the present day. Its compression molding process has obvious advantages in mass production. This paper attempts to establish the constitutive models of compression molding [...] Read more.
The carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) is a mainstream material for lightweight products from the end of the 20th century to the present day. Its compression molding process has obvious advantages in mass production. This paper attempts to establish the constitutive models of compression molding of the CFRP materials and study their mechanism. Based on anisotropic linear elastic mechanics, viscoelastic mechanics, and thermodynamics, as well as the Maxwell viscoelastic constitutive model, we first establish the constitutive model of thermorheologically simple CFRP materials (TSMs). Then, considering the influence of temperature on the initial stiffness and equilibrium stiffness, the concept of temperature stiffness coefficient is introduced, and the Cartier coordinate system is converted into a cylindrical coordinate system, thereby establishing the constitutive model of thermorheologically complex materials (TCMs) using the tensor form. Finally, by comparing to the structure of the Zocher model, the two constitutive models established in this study are verified. The research findings have important theoretical research significance for studying the compression molding mechanism of carbon fiber and further improving the quality of product molding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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28 pages, 1968 KiB  
Article
Expanding Puck and Schürmann Inter Fiber Fracture Criterion for Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic 3D-Printed Composite Materials
by Thiago Assis Dutra, Rafael Thiago Luiz Ferreira, Hugo Borelli Resende, Brina Jane Blinzler and Ragnar Larsson
Materials 2020, 13(7), 1653; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13071653 - 02 Apr 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3955
Abstract
The present work expands the application of Puck and Schürmann Inter-Fiber Fracture criterion to fiber reinforced thermoplastic 3D-printed composite materials. The effect of the ratio between the transverse compressive strength and the in-plane shear strength is discussed and a new transition point between [...] Read more.
The present work expands the application of Puck and Schürmann Inter-Fiber Fracture criterion to fiber reinforced thermoplastic 3D-printed composite materials. The effect of the ratio between the transverse compressive strength and the in-plane shear strength is discussed and a new transition point between the fracture conditions under compressive loading is proposed. The recommended values of the inclination parameters, as well as their effects on the proposed method, are also discussed. Failure envelopes are presented for different 3D-printed materials and also for traditional composite materials. The failure envelopes obtained here are compared to those provided by the original Puck and Schürmann criterion and to those provided by Gu and Chen. The differences between them are analyzed with the support of geometrical techniques and also statistical tools. It is demonstrated that the Expanded Puck and Schürmann is capable of providing more suitable failure envelopes for fiber reinforced thermoplastic 3D-printed composite materials in addition to traditional semi-brittle, brittle and intrinsically brittle composite materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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18 pages, 6473 KiB  
Article
Experimental Investigation of Fatigue Debonding Growth in FRP–Concrete Interface
by Xinzhe Min, Jiwen Zhang, Chao Wang, Shoutan Song and Dong Yang
Materials 2020, 13(6), 1459; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13061459 - 23 Mar 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2895
Abstract
An externally bonded fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) plate (or sheet) is now widely used in strengthening bending members due to its outstanding properties, such as a high strength to weight ratio, easy operating, corrosion and fatigue resistance. However, the concrete member strengthened by [...] Read more.
An externally bonded fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) plate (or sheet) is now widely used in strengthening bending members due to its outstanding properties, such as a high strength to weight ratio, easy operating, corrosion and fatigue resistance. However, the concrete member strengthened by this technology may have a problem with the adhesion between FRP and concrete. This kind of debonding failure can be broadly classified into two modes: (a) plate end debonding at or near the plate end, and (b) intermediate crack-induced debonding (intermediate crack-induced (IC) debonding) near the loading point. The IC debonding, unlike the plate end debonding, still needs a large amount of investigation work, especially for the interface under fatigue load. In this paper, ten single shear pull-out tests were carried out under a static or fatigue load. Different load ranges and load levels were considered, and the debonding growth process was carefully recorded. The experimental results indicate that the load range is one of the main parameters, which determines the debonding growth rate. Moreover, the load level can also play an important role when loaded with the same load range. Finally, a new prediction model of the fatigue debonding growth rate was proposed, and has an excellent agreement with the experimental results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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16 pages, 4744 KiB  
Article
Rapid Prototyping of Personalized Articular Orthoses by Lamination of Composite Fibers upon 3D-Printed Molds
by Juan Manuel Munoz-Guijosa, Rodrigo Zapata Martínez, Adrián Martínez Cendrero and Andrés Díaz Lantada
Materials 2020, 13(4), 939; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13040939 - 20 Feb 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3237
Abstract
Advances in additive manufacturing technologies and composite materials are starting to be combined into synergic procedures that may impact the biomedical field by helping to achieve personalized and high-performance solutions for low-resource settings. In this article, we illustrate the benefits of 3D-printed rapid [...] Read more.
Advances in additive manufacturing technologies and composite materials are starting to be combined into synergic procedures that may impact the biomedical field by helping to achieve personalized and high-performance solutions for low-resource settings. In this article, we illustrate the benefits of 3D-printed rapid molds, upon which composite fibers can be laminated in a direct and resource-efficient way, for the personalized development of articular splints. The rapid mold concept presented in this work allows for a flexible lamination and curing process, even compatible with autoclaves. We demonstrate the procedure by completely developing an autoclave-cured carbon fiber–epoxy composite ankle immobilizing, supporting, or protecting splint. These medical devices may support patients in their recovery of articular injuries and for promoting a more personalized medical care employing high-performance materials, whose mechanical response is analyzed and compared to that of commercial devices. In fact, this personalization is fundamental for enhanced ergonomics, comfort during rehabilitation, and overall aesthetics. The proposed design and manufacturing strategies may support the low-cost and user-centered development of a wide set of biomedical devices and help to delocalize the supply chain for involving local populations in the development of medical technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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23 pages, 8617 KiB  
Article
Different Methods of Dispersing Carbon Nanotubes in Epoxy Resin and Initial Evaluation of the Obtained Nanocomposite as a Matrix of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Laminate in Terms of Vibroacoustic Performance and Flammability
by Giuseppina Barra, Liberata Guadagno, Luigi Vertuccio, Bartolome Simonet, Bricio Santos, Mauro Zarrelli, Maurizio Arena and Massimo Viscardi
Materials 2019, 12(18), 2998; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12182998 - 16 Sep 2019
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 2913
Abstract
Different industrial mixing methods and some of their combinations ((1) ultrasound; (2) mechanical stirring; (3) by roller machine; (4) by gears machine; and (5) ultrasound radiation + high stirring) were investigated for incorporating multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) into a resin based on an [...] Read more.
Different industrial mixing methods and some of their combinations ((1) ultrasound; (2) mechanical stirring; (3) by roller machine; (4) by gears machine; and (5) ultrasound radiation + high stirring) were investigated for incorporating multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) into a resin based on an aeronautical epoxy precursor cured with diaminodiphenylsulfone (DDS). The effect of different parameters, ultrasound intensity, number of cycles, type of blade, and gear speed on the nanofiller dispersion were analyzed. The inclusion of the nanofiller in the resin causes a drastic increase in the viscosity, preventing the homogenization of the resin and a drastic increase in temperature in the zones closest to the ultrasound probe. To face these challenges, the application of high-speed agitation simultaneously with the application of ultrasonic radiation was applied. This allowed, on the one hand, a homogeneous dispersion, and on the other hand, an improvement of the dissipation of heat generated by ultrasonic radiation. The most efficient method was a combination of ultrasound radiation assisted by a high stirring method with the calendar, which was used for the preparation of a carbon fiber reinforced panel (CFRP). The manufactured panel was subjected to dynamic and vibroacoustic tests in order to characterize structural damping and sound transmission loss properties. Under both points of view, the new formulation demonstrated an improved efficiency with reference to a standard CFRP equivalent panel. In fact, for this panel, the estimated damping value was well above the average of the typical values representative of the carbon fiber laminates (generally less than 1%), and also a good vibroacoustic performance was detected as the nanotube based panel exhibited a higher sound transmission loss (STL) at low frequencies, in correspondence with the normal mode participation region. The manufactured panel was also characterized in terms of fire performance using a cone calorimeter and the results were compared to those obtained using a commercially available monocomponent RTM6 (Hexcel composites) epoxy aeronautic resin with the same process and the same fabric and lamination. Compared to the traditional RTM6 resin, the panel with the epoxy nanofilled resin exhibits a significant improvement in fire resistance properties both in terms of a delay in the ignition time and in terms of an increase in the thermal resistance of the material. Compared to the traditional panel, made in the same conditions as the RTM6 resin, the time of ignition of the nanotube-based panel increased by 31 seconds while for the same panel, the heat release rate at peak, the average heat release rate, and the total heat release decreased by 21.4%, 48.5%, and 15%, respectively. The improvement of the fire performance was attributed to the formation of a non-intumescent char due to the simultaneous presence of GPOSS and carbon nanotubes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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17 pages, 3936 KiB  
Article
Influence of Unit Cell Size and Fiber Packing on the Transverse Tensile Response of Fiber Reinforced Composites
by Royan J. D’Mello and Anthony M. Waas
Materials 2019, 12(16), 2565; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12162565 - 12 Aug 2019
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3240
Abstract
Representative volume elements (RVEs) are commonly used to compute the effective elastic properties of solid media having repeating microstructure, such as fiber reinforced composites. However, for softening materials, an RVE could be problematic due to localization of deformation. Here, we address the effects [...] Read more.
Representative volume elements (RVEs) are commonly used to compute the effective elastic properties of solid media having repeating microstructure, such as fiber reinforced composites. However, for softening materials, an RVE could be problematic due to localization of deformation. Here, we address the effects of unit cell size and fiber packing on the transverse tensile response of fiber reinforced composites in the context of integrated computational materials engineering (ICME). Finite element computations for unit cells at the microscale are performed for different sizes of unit cells with random fiber packing that preserve a fixed fiber volume fraction—these unit cells are loaded in the transverse direction under tension. Salient features of the response are analyzed to understand the effects of fiber packing and unit cell size on the details of crack path, overall strength and also the shape of the stress-strain response before failure. Provision for damage accumulation/cracking in the matrix is made possible via the Bazant-Oh crack band model. The results suggest that the choice of unit cell size is more sensitive to strength and less sensitive to stiffness, when these properties are used as homogenized inputs to macro-scale models. Unit cells of smaller size exhibit higher strength and this strength converges to a plateau as the size of the unit cell increases. In this sense, since stiffness has also converged to a plateau with an increase in unit cell size, the converged unit cell size may be thought of as an RVE. Results in support of these insights are presented in this paper. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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13 pages, 4068 KiB  
Article
Process Optimization for Compression Molding of Carbon Fiber–Reinforced Thermosetting Polymer
by Jiuming Xie, Shiyu Wang, Zhongbao Cui and Jin Wu
Materials 2019, 12(15), 2430; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12152430 - 30 Jul 2019
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3994
Abstract
To enhance the quality and mechanical performance of a carbon fiber–reinforced polymer (CFRP) workpiece, this paper prepares a polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based carbon fiber–reinforced thermosetting polymer (CFRTP) laminated board through compression molding, and carries out orthogonal tests and single-factor tests to disclose the effects of [...] Read more.
To enhance the quality and mechanical performance of a carbon fiber–reinforced polymer (CFRP) workpiece, this paper prepares a polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based carbon fiber–reinforced thermosetting polymer (CFRTP) laminated board through compression molding, and carries out orthogonal tests and single-factor tests to disclose the effects of different process parameters (i.e., compression temperature, compression pressure, pressure-holding time, and cooling rate) on the mechanical performance of the CFRTP workpieces. Moreover, the process parameters of compression molding were optimized based on the test results. The research results show that: The process parameters of compression molding can be ranked as compression temperature, pressure-holding time, compression pressure, cooling rate, and mold-opening temperature, in descending order of the impact on the mechanical property of the CFRTP; the optimal process parameters for compression molding include a compression temperature of 150 °C, a pressure-holding time of 20 min, a compression pressure of 50 T, a cooling rate of 3.5 °C/min, and a mold-opening temperature of 80 °C. Under this parameter combination, the tensile strength, bending strength, and the interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) of the samples were, respectively, 785.28, 680.36, and 66.15 MPa. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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10 pages, 3362 KiB  
Article
Debonding Detection and Monitoring for CFRP Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Pizeoceramic Sensors
by Shukui Liu, Wei Sun, Hongwen Jing and Zhaoxing Dong
Materials 2019, 12(13), 2150; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12132150 - 04 Jul 2019
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2718
Abstract
The bonding status between Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) and concrete is one of the key issues for the safety of CFPR-reinforced structures, thus it is of great importance to detect the debonding as early as possible. Instead of detecting the debonding which [...] Read more.
The bonding status between Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) and concrete is one of the key issues for the safety of CFPR-reinforced structures, thus it is of great importance to detect the debonding as early as possible. Instead of detecting the debonding which is artificially set at the very beginning, this paper investigates the feasibility of using low-cost piezoceramic sensors to detect and monitor the debonding of CFRP-reinforced concrete beams in situ. For existing debonding detection, a concrete beam reinforced with CFRP sheet was loaded through the three-point bending test till failure to induce debonding between CFRP sheet and the concrete substrate, and piezoceramic sensors were used to detect the existing debonding by analyzing the receiving ultrasonic waves. In addition, the debonding detection results were further compared with and verified by the vision-based strain testing results. For in-situ debonding monitoring, 10 piezoceramic sensors were used as an array to track the wave transmission changes during the loading process of a CFRP-reinforced concrete beam, and the debonding development process was successfully monitored. The test results show that the low-cost piezoceramic sensors are very effective to generate and receive ultrasonic waves, and are capable of detecting the existing debonding and monitoring of the in-situ debonding process as well. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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15 pages, 5960 KiB  
Article
A Multiscale Modelling Approach for Estimating the Effect of Defects in Unidirectional Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites
by Kim-Niklas Antin, Anssi Laukkanen, Tom Andersson, Danny Smyl and Pedro Vilaça
Materials 2019, 12(12), 1885; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12121885 - 12 Jun 2019
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3980
Abstract
A multiscale modelling approach was developed in order to estimate the effect of defects on the strength of unidirectional carbon fiber composites. The work encompasses a micromechanics approach, where the known reinforcement and matrix properties are experimentally verified and a 3D finite element [...] Read more.
A multiscale modelling approach was developed in order to estimate the effect of defects on the strength of unidirectional carbon fiber composites. The work encompasses a micromechanics approach, where the known reinforcement and matrix properties are experimentally verified and a 3D finite element model is meshed directly from micrographs. Boundary conditions for loading the micromechanical model are derived from macroscale finite element simulations of the component in question. Using a microscale model based on the actual microstructure, material parameters and load case allows realistic estimation of the effect of a defect. The modelling approach was tested with a unidirectional carbon fiber composite beam, from which the micromechanical model was created and experimentally validated. The effect of porosity was simulated using a resin-rich area in the microstructure and the results were compared to experimental work on samples containing pores. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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22 pages, 11343 KiB  
Article
Evaluation and Modeling of the Fatigue Damage Behavior of Polymer Composites at Reversed Cyclic Loading
by Ilja Koch, Gordon Just, Martin Brod, Jiuheng Chen, Audrius Doblies, Aamir Dean, Maik Gude, Raimund Rolfes, Christian Hopmann and Bodo Fiedler
Materials 2019, 12(11), 1727; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12111727 - 28 May 2019
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4188
Abstract
Understanding the composite damage formation process and its impact on mechanical properties is a key step towards further improvement of material and higher use. For its accelerated application, furthermore, practice-related modeling strategies are to be established. In this collaborative study, the damage behavior [...] Read more.
Understanding the composite damage formation process and its impact on mechanical properties is a key step towards further improvement of material and higher use. For its accelerated application, furthermore, practice-related modeling strategies are to be established. In this collaborative study, the damage behavior of carbon fiber-reinforced composites under cyclic loading with load reversals is analyzed experimentally and numerically. The differences of crack density evolution during constant amplitude and tension-compression block-loading is characterized with the help of fatigue tests on cross-ply laminates. For clarifying the evolving stress-strain behavior of the matrix during static and fatigue long-term loading, creep, and fatigue experiments with subsequent fracture tests on neat resin samples are applied. The local stress redistribution in the composite material is later evaluated numerically using composite representative volume element (RVE) and matrix models under consideration of viscoelasticity. The experimental and numerical work reveals the strong influence of residual stresses and the range of cyclic tension stresses to the damage behavior. On the microscopic level, stress redistribution dependent on the mean stress takes place and a tendency of the matrix towards embrittlement was found. Therefore, it is mandatory to consider stress amplitude and means stress as inseparable load characteristic for fatigue assessment, which additionally is influenced by production-related and time-dependent residual stresses. The phenomenological findings are incorporated to a numerical simulation framework on the layer level to provide an improved engineering tool for designing composite structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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11 pages, 3014 KiB  
Article
Bonded Repair Optimization of Cracked Aluminum Alloy Plate by Microwave Cured Carbon-Aramid Fiber/Epoxy Sandwich Composite Patch
by Xiaoyan Liu, Jiacheng Wu, Jiaojiao Xi and Zhiqiang Yu
Materials 2019, 12(10), 1655; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12101655 - 21 May 2019
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3419
Abstract
Fiber-reinforced epoxy sandwich composites, which were designed as the bonded repair patches to better recover the mechanical performance of a central cracked aluminum alloy plate, were layered by carbon and aramid fiber layers jointly and cured by microwave method in this study. The [...] Read more.
Fiber-reinforced epoxy sandwich composites, which were designed as the bonded repair patches to better recover the mechanical performance of a central cracked aluminum alloy plate, were layered by carbon and aramid fiber layers jointly and cured by microwave method in this study. The static tensile and bending properties of both carbon-aramid fiber/epoxy sandwich composite patches and the cracked aluminum alloy plates after bonded repair were systematically investigated. By comparing the mechanical performance with traditional single carbon-fiber-reinforced composite patches, it can be found that the bending performance of carbon-aramid fiber sandwich composite patches was effectively improved after incorporation of flexible aramid fiber layers into the carbon fiber layers, but the tensile strength of sandwich composite patches was weakened to some extent. Especially, the sandwich patches with 3 fiber layers exhibited better tensile and bending performance in comparison to patches of 5 and 7 fiber layers. The optimized 3-layer carbon-aramid fiber sandwich patch repaired plate recovered 86% and 190% of the tensile and bending performance in comparison to the uncracked ones, respectively, showing a considerable repair majorization effect for the cracked aluminum alloy plate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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16 pages, 5842 KiB  
Article
Assessing the Damage Tolerance of Out of Autoclave Manufactured Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers Modified with Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
by Polyxeni Dimoka, Spyridon Psarras, Christine Kostagiannakopoulou and Vassilis Kostopoulos
Materials 2019, 12(7), 1080; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12071080 - 02 Apr 2019
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3132
Abstract
The present study aims to investigate the influence of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on the damage tolerance after impact (CAI) of the development of Out of Autoclave (OoA) carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates. The introduction of MWCNTs into the structure of CFRPs [...] Read more.
The present study aims to investigate the influence of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on the damage tolerance after impact (CAI) of the development of Out of Autoclave (OoA) carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates. The introduction of MWCNTs into the structure of CFRPs has been succeeded by adding carbon nanotube-enriched sizing agent for the pre-treatment of the fibre preform and using an in-house developed methodology that can be easily scaled up. The modified CFRPs laminates with 1.5 wt.% MWCNTs were subjected to low velocity impact at three impact energy levels (8, 15 and 30 J) and directly compared with the unmodified laminates. In terms of the CFRPs impact performance, compressive strength of nanomodified composites was improved for all energy levels compared to the reference material. The test results obtained from C-scan analysis of nano-modified specimens showed that the delamination area after the impact is mainly reduced, without the degradation of compressive strength and stiffness, indicating a potential improvement of damage tolerance compared to the reference material. SEM analysis of fracture surfaces revealed the additional energy dissipation mechanisms; pulled-out carbon nanotubes which is the main reason for the improved damage tolerance of the multifunctional composites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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11 pages, 3364 KiB  
Article
Bending Properties of Zigzag-Shaped 3D Woven Spacer Composites: Experiment and FEM Simulation
by Liming Zhu, Lihua Lyu, Xuefei Zhang, Ying Wang, Jing Guo and Xiaoqing Xiong
Materials 2019, 12(7), 1075; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12071075 - 01 Apr 2019
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3278
Abstract
Conventionally laminated spacer composites are extensively applied in many fields owing to their light weight. However, their impact resistance, interlaminar strength, and integrity are poor. In order to overcome these flaws, the zigzag-shaped 3D woven spacer composites were rationally designed. The zigzag-shaped 3D [...] Read more.
Conventionally laminated spacer composites are extensively applied in many fields owing to their light weight. However, their impact resistance, interlaminar strength, and integrity are poor. In order to overcome these flaws, the zigzag-shaped 3D woven spacer composites were rationally designed. The zigzag-shaped 3D woven spacer fabrics with the basalt fiber filaments tows 400 tex (metric count of yarn) used as warp and weft yarns were fabricated on a common loom with low-cost processing. The zigzag-shaped 3D woven spacer composites were obtained using the VARTM (vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding) process. The three-point bending deformation and effects of damage in zigzag-shaped 3D woven spacer composites were studied both in experiment and using the finite element method (FEM). The bending properties of zigzag-shaped 3D woven spacer composites with different direction, different numbers of weaving cycle, and different heights were tested in experiments. In FEM simulation, the geometrical model was established to analyze the deformation and damage based on the 3D woven composite structure. Compared with data obtained from the experiments and FEM simulation, the results show good agreement and also prove the validity of the model. Based on the FEM results, the deformation, damage, and propagation of stress obtained from the model are very helpful in analyzing the failure mechanism of zigzag-shaped 3D woven composites. Furthermore, the results can significantly guide the fabrication process of real composite materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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13 pages, 5304 KiB  
Article
Preparation of High-Performance Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Composites by Compression Resin Transfer Molding
by Zeyu Sun, Jie Xiao, Lei Tao, Yuanping Wei, Shijie Wang, Hui Zhang, Shu Zhu and Muhuo Yu
Materials 2019, 12(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12010013 - 20 Dec 2018
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 6740
Abstract
To satisfy the light weight requirements of vehicles owing to the aggravation of environmental pollution, carbon-fiber (CF)-reinforced epoxy composites have been chosen as a substitute for traditional metal counterparts. Since the current processing methods such as resin transfer molding (RTM) and compression molding [...] Read more.
To satisfy the light weight requirements of vehicles owing to the aggravation of environmental pollution, carbon-fiber (CF)-reinforced epoxy composites have been chosen as a substitute for traditional metal counterparts. Since the current processing methods such as resin transfer molding (RTM) and compression molding (CM) have many limitations, an integrated and optimal molding method needs to be developed. Herein, we prepared high-performance composites by an optimized molding method, namely compression resin transfer molding (CRTM), which combines the traditional RTM and CM selectively and comprehensively. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and rotational rheometry were performed to optimize the molding parameters of CRTM. In addition, metallurgical microscopy test and mechanical tests were performed to evaluate the applicability of CRTM. The experimental results showed that the composites prepared by CRTM displayed superior mechanical properties than those of the composites prepared by RTM and CM. The composite prepared by CRTM showed up to 42.9%, 41.2%, 77.3%, and 5.3% increases in tensile strength, bending strength, interlaminar shear strength, and volume fraction, respectively, of the composites prepared by RTM. Meanwhile, the porosity decreased by 45.2 %. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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22 pages, 4476 KiB  
Article
An Improved Analytical Solution for Process-Induced Residual Stresses and Deformations in Flat Composite Laminates Considering Thermo-Viscoelastic Effects
by Chao Liu and Yaoyao Shi
Materials 2018, 11(12), 2506; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11122506 - 10 Dec 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3182
Abstract
Dimensional control can be a major concern in the processing of composite structures. Compared to numerical models based on finite element methods, the analytical method can provide a faster prediction of process-induced residual stresses and deformations with a certain level of accuracy. It [...] Read more.
Dimensional control can be a major concern in the processing of composite structures. Compared to numerical models based on finite element methods, the analytical method can provide a faster prediction of process-induced residual stresses and deformations with a certain level of accuracy. It can explain the underlying mechanisms. In this paper, an improved analytical solution is proposed to consider thermo-viscoelastic effects on residual stresses and deformations of flat composite laminates during curing. First, an incremental differential equation is derived to describe the viscoelastic behavior of composite materials during curing. Afterward, the analytical solution is developed to solve the differential equation by assuming the solution at the current time, which is a linear combination of the corresponding Laplace equation solutions of all time. Moreover, the analytical solution is extended to investigate cure behavior of multilayer composite laminates during manufacturing. Good agreement between the analytical solution results and the experimental and finite element analysis (FEA) results validates the accuracy and effectiveness of the proposed method. Furthermore, the mechanism generating residual stresses and deformations for unsymmetrical composite laminates is investigated based on the proposed analytical solution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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13 pages, 8693 KiB  
Article
A Study on Drilling High-Strength CFRP Laminates: Frictional Heat and Cutting Temperature
by Jinyang Xu, Chao Li, Jiaqiang Dang, Mohamed El Mansori and Fei Ren
Materials 2018, 11(12), 2366; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11122366 - 25 Nov 2018
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4125
Abstract
High-strength carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites have become popular materials to be utilized in the aerospace and automotive industries, due to their unique and superior mechanical properties. An understanding of cutting temperatures is rather important when dealing with high-strength CFRPs, since machining [...] Read more.
High-strength carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites have become popular materials to be utilized in the aerospace and automotive industries, due to their unique and superior mechanical properties. An understanding of cutting temperatures is rather important when dealing with high-strength CFRPs, since machining defects are likely to occur because of high temperatures (especially in the semi-closed drilling process). The friction behavior at the flank tool-workpiece interface when drilling CFRPs plays a vital role in the heat generation, which still remains poorly understood. The aim of this paper is to address the friction-induced heat based on two specially-designed tribometers to simulate different sliding velocities, similar to those occurring along the flank tool-work interface in drilling. The elastic recovery effect during the drilling process was considered during the tribo-drilling experiments. The drilling temperatures were calculated by the analytical model and verified by the in-situ experimental results gained using the embedded thermocouples into the drills. The results indicate that the magnitudes of the interfacial friction coefficients between the cemented carbide tool and the CFRP specimen are within the range between 0.135–0.168 under the examined conditions. Additionally, the friction caused by the plastic deformation and elastic recovery effects plays a dominant role when the sliding velocity increases. The findings in this paper point out the impact of the friction-induced heat and cutting parameters on the overall drilling temperature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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11 pages, 4335 KiB  
Article
Influence of Defects on Bending Properties of 2D-T700/E44 Composites Prepared by Improved Compression Molding Process
by Yuqin Ma, Shuangshuang Li, Jie Wang, Luyan Ju and Xinmei Liu
Materials 2018, 11(11), 2132; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11112132 - 30 Oct 2018
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3196
Abstract
2D-T700/E44 composite materials were prepared by improved compression molding process (ICM) then microstructure and properties of the composites were analyzed and summarized by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and electronic universal testing machine. It is found that defects will occur when the process parameters [...] Read more.
2D-T700/E44 composite materials were prepared by improved compression molding process (ICM) then microstructure and properties of the composites were analyzed and summarized by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and electronic universal testing machine. It is found that defects will occur when the process parameters are not controlled properly and the main defects of composite materials include inadequate resin impregnation, weak interlaminar binding force, fiber displacement warping, hole and brittle fracture. Moreover, there are significant differences in the infiltration microstructure, bending properties, and fracture morphology of the composite materials with different defects. When the defects of weak interlaminar binding force and brittle fracture occur, bending properties of composite materials are relatively low, and they are 220 MPa and 245 MPa, respectively, which reach 34.9% and 38.9% of the bending strength of composite material whose defects are effectively controlled. When the process parameters are reasonable and the defects of the composite materials are effectively eliminated, the bending strength can reach 630 MPa. This will lay a foundation for the preparation of 2D-T700/E44 composite materials with ideal microstructures and properties by ICM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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12 pages, 5434 KiB  
Article
Prediction of Defect Formation during Resin Impregnation Process through a Multi-Layered Fiber Preform in Resin Transfer Molding by a Proposed Analytical Model
by Dong Gi Seong, Shino Kim, Doojin Lee, Jin Woo Yi, Sang Woo Kim and Seong Yun Kim
Materials 2018, 11(10), 2055; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11102055 - 22 Oct 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3245
Abstract
It is very important to predict any defects occurring by undesired fiber deformations to improve production yields of resin transfer molding, which has been widely used for mass production of carbon fiber reinforced composite parts. In this study, a simple and efficient analytic [...] Read more.
It is very important to predict any defects occurring by undesired fiber deformations to improve production yields of resin transfer molding, which has been widely used for mass production of carbon fiber reinforced composite parts. In this study, a simple and efficient analytic scheme was proposed to predict deformations of a multi-layered fiber preform by comparing the forces applied to the preform in a mold of resin transfer molding. Friction coefficient of dry and wet states, permeability, and compressive behavior of unidirectional (UD) and plain woven (PW) carbon fabrics were measured, which were used to predict deformations of the multi-layered fiber preforms with changing their constitution ratios. The model predicted the occurrence, type, and position of fiber deformation, which agreed with the experimental results of the multi-layered preforms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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15 pages, 6600 KiB  
Article
Interlaminar Shear Behavior of Laminated Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic from Microscale Strain Distributions Measured by Sampling Moiré Technique
by Qinghua Wang, Shien Ri, Hiroshi Tsuda, Yosuke Takashita, Ryuta Kitamura and Shinji Ogihara
Materials 2018, 11(9), 1684; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091684 - 11 Sep 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4102
Abstract
In this article, the interlaminar shear behavior of a [±45°]4s laminated carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) specimen is investigated, by utilizing microscale strain mapping in a wide field of view. A three-point bending device is developed under a laser scanning microscope, and [...] Read more.
In this article, the interlaminar shear behavior of a [±45°]4s laminated carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) specimen is investigated, by utilizing microscale strain mapping in a wide field of view. A three-point bending device is developed under a laser scanning microscope, and the full-field strain distributions, including normal, shear and principal strains on the cross section of CFRP, in a three-point bending test, are measured using a developed sampling Moiré technique. The microscale shear strain concentrations at interfaces between each two adjacent layers were successfully detected and found to be positive-negative alternately distributed before damage occurrence. The 45° layers slipped to the right relative to the −45° layers, visualized from the revised Moiré phases, and shear strain distributions of the angle-ply CFRP under different loads. The absolute values of the shear strain at interfaces gradually rose with the increase of the bending load, and the sudden decrease of the shear strain peak value implied the occurrence of interlaminar damage. The evolution of the shear strain concentrations is useful in the quantitative evaluation of the potential interlaminar shear failure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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16 pages, 3944 KiB  
Article
Fatigue Life Prediction for Transverse Crack Initiation of CFRP Cross-Ply and Quasi-Isotropic Laminates
by Atsushi Hosoi and Hiroyuki Kawada
Materials 2018, 11(7), 1182; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071182 - 10 Jul 2018
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5136
Abstract
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) laminates are used as main structural members in many applications. Transverse cracks that form in 90° layers of CFRP laminates are mostly initial damage in the case where tensile loading is vertically applied to the 90° layers of [...] Read more.
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) laminates are used as main structural members in many applications. Transverse cracks that form in 90° layers of CFRP laminates are mostly initial damage in the case where tensile loading is vertically applied to the 90° layers of CFRP laminates, and they are the origin of more serious damage of delamination and fiber breakage. It is thus important to predict quantitatively the transverse crack initiation of CFRP laminates subjected to cyclic loading to ensure the long-term reliability of the laminates. The initiation and multiplication behaviors of transverse cracks strongly depend on the laminate configuration, thickness, and thermal residual stress. Therefore, a model based on the Walker model was proposed to predict transverse crack initiation in CFRP cross-ply and quasi-isotropic laminates under cyclic loading in the present study. The usefulness of the proposed model was verified with 10 different CFRP laminates formed from four different prepregs with epoxy resin matrices. The analysis results were in good agreement with experimental results. The fatigue life was expressed with three constants, which related to the fatigue strength reduction, the normalized fatigue strength at N = 1 cycle, and the contribution of stress amplitude to the fatigue life, and they are independent of the laminate configuration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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12 pages, 4151 KiB  
Article
Effects of Blank Quality on Press-Formed PEKK/Carbon Composite Parts
by Valentina Donadei, Francesca Lionetto, Michael Wielandt, Arnt Offringa and Alfonso Maffezzoli
Materials 2018, 11(7), 1063; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11071063 - 23 Jun 2018
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5256
Abstract
The causes of delamination and porosities during press forming of pre-consolidated flat laminates (blanks) made of carbon fiber-reinforced poly(ether ketone ketone) (PEKK) were addressed in this study. In particular, the quality of the blank laminate was investigated before and after infrared heating. The [...] Read more.
The causes of delamination and porosities during press forming of pre-consolidated flat laminates (blanks) made of carbon fiber-reinforced poly(ether ketone ketone) (PEKK) were addressed in this study. In particular, the quality of the blank laminate was investigated before and after infrared heating. The consolidation quality was evaluated by thickness measurements, non-destructive inspection (NDI), and optical microscopy. The experimental results confirmed that deconsolidation phenomena can be related to residual stresses formed during blank forming in an autoclave, then released during infrared heating (IR) of the blank, determining most of the defects in IR heated blanks. These defects, generated at the pre-heating stage, were not fully removed in the consolidation stage of the press forming process. An annealing treatment, performed on autoclave-consolidated blanks above the glass transition temperature of the matrix, was proposed to reduce the formation of defects during IR heating. The stress relaxation phenomena during annealing were modelled using a simple viscoelastic model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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13 pages, 3638 KiB  
Article
An Investigation of Fiber Reinforced Chemically Bonded Phosphate Ceramic Composites at Room Temperature
by Zhu Ding, Yu-Yu Li, Can Lu and Jian Liu
Materials 2018, 11(5), 858; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11050858 - 21 May 2018
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4363
Abstract
In this study, chemically bonded phosphate ceramic (CBPC) fiber reinforced composites were made at indoor temperatures. The mechanical properties and microstructure of the CBPC composites were studied. The CBPC matrix of aluminum phosphate binder, metakaolin, and magnesia with different Si/P ratios was prepared. [...] Read more.
In this study, chemically bonded phosphate ceramic (CBPC) fiber reinforced composites were made at indoor temperatures. The mechanical properties and microstructure of the CBPC composites were studied. The CBPC matrix of aluminum phosphate binder, metakaolin, and magnesia with different Si/P ratios was prepared. The results show that when the Si/P ratio was 1.2, and magnesia content in the CBPC was 15%, CBPC reached its maximum flexural strength. The fiber reinforced CBPC composites were prepared by mixing short polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers or unidirectional continuous carbon fiber sheets. Flexural strength and dynamic mechanical properties of the composites were determined, and the microstructures of specimens were analyzed by scanning electron micrography, X-ray diffraction, and micro X-ray computed tomography. The flexural performance of continuous carbon fiber reinforced CBPC composites was better than that of PVA fiber composites. The elastic modulus, loss modulus, and loss factor of the fiber composites were measured through dynamic mechanical analysis. The results showed that fiber reinforced CBPC composites are an inorganic polymer viscoelastic material with excellent damping properties. The reaction of magnesia and phosphate in the matrix of CBPC formed a different mineral, newberyite, which was beneficial to the development of the CBPC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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14 pages, 4987 KiB  
Article
Reliability Analysis of Bond Behaviour of CFRP–Concrete Interface under Wet–Dry Cycles
by Hongjun Liang, Shan Li, Yiyan Lu and Ting Yang
Materials 2018, 11(5), 741; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11050741 - 07 May 2018
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 4044
Abstract
Effective bonding between adherents plays a key role in retrofitting concrete structures in civil engineering using fibre-reinforced polymers (FRPs). To ensure structural safety, it is critical to develop design codes, which account for uncertainties of materials, the environment, and load, to estimate bond [...] Read more.
Effective bonding between adherents plays a key role in retrofitting concrete structures in civil engineering using fibre-reinforced polymers (FRPs). To ensure structural safety, it is critical to develop design codes, which account for uncertainties of materials, the environment, and load, to estimate bond behaviour under long-term exposure to harsh environments. Therefore, a reliability analysis was performed to study the bond behaviour of FRP–concrete interface under wet–dry cycles and sustained loading. Thirty double-lap, shear-bonded carbon FRP (CFRP)–concrete composite specimens were tested after wet–dry cycles and sustained loading exposure. The fracture energy Gf of the bond behavior between CFRP and concrete was directly obtained from the measured local bond-slip curves. Five widely used test methods were adopted to verify the possible distribution types of Gf. Based on the best fit distribution of Gf, a reliability index β was then calculated for the specimens. The effects of wet–dry exposure and sustained loading on β were analysed separately. The effects of the mean and standard deviation of the load on β were compared. It was found that the mean had a greater impact on reliability than the standard deviation, but neither changed the regulation of the exponential reduction of β with increasing wet–dry cycle time. Their impact was significant for a small number of wet–dry cycles but insignificant for more than 4000 wet–dry cycles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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12 pages, 2887 KiB  
Article
A One-Component, Fast-Cure, and Economical Epoxy Resin System Suitable for Liquid Molding of Automotive Composite Parts
by Yiru Wang, Wanshuang Liu, Yiping Qiu and Yi Wei
Materials 2018, 11(5), 685; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11050685 - 27 Apr 2018
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5885
Abstract
Imidazole cured epoxy resin systems were evaluated for one-component, fast-curing resins for liquid molding of automotive composite parts according to industry requirements. It was demonstrated that an epoxy resin-1-(cyanoethyl)-2-ethyl-4-methylimidazol(EP-1C2E4MIM) system would cure in a few minutes at 120 °C, while exhibiting acceptable pot [...] Read more.
Imidazole cured epoxy resin systems were evaluated for one-component, fast-curing resins for liquid molding of automotive composite parts according to industry requirements. It was demonstrated that an epoxy resin-1-(cyanoethyl)-2-ethyl-4-methylimidazol(EP-1C2E4MIM) system would cure in a few minutes at 120 °C, while exhibiting acceptable pot life, viscosity profiles, and low water absorption. Moreover, this system yielded high Tg parts with mechanical properties similar to the amine-epoxy systems, which are the mainstream two-component epoxy resin systems for automobiles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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17 pages, 10570 KiB  
Article
Analysis of CFRP Joints by Means of T-Pull Mechanical Test and Ultrasonic Defects Detection
by Caterina Casavola, Fania Palano, Francesco De Cillis, Angelo Tati, Roberto Terzi and Vincenza Luprano
Materials 2018, 11(4), 620; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11040620 - 18 Apr 2018
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4683
Abstract
Defects detection within a composite component, with the aim of understanding and predicting its mechanical behavior, is of great importance in the aeronautical field because the irregularities of the composite material could compromise functionality. The aim of this paper is to detect defects [...] Read more.
Defects detection within a composite component, with the aim of understanding and predicting its mechanical behavior, is of great importance in the aeronautical field because the irregularities of the composite material could compromise functionality. The aim of this paper is to detect defects by means of non-destructive testing (NDT) on T-pull samples made by carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) and to evaluate their effect on the mechanical response of the material. Samples, obtained from an industrial stringer having an inclined web and realized with a polymeric filler between cap and web, were subjected to ultrasonic monitoring and then to T-pull mechanical tests. All samples were tested with the same load mode and the same test configuration. An experimental set-up consisting of a semiautomatic C-scan ultrasonic mapping system with a phased array probe was designed and developed, optimizing control parameters and implementing image processing software. The present work is carried out on real composites parts that are characterized by having their intrinsic defectiveness, as opposed to the previous similar results in the literature mainly obtained on composite parts with artificially produced defects. In fact, although samples under study were realized free from defects, ultrasonic mapping found defectiveness inside the material. Moreover, the ultrasonic inspection could be useful in detecting both the location and size of defects. Experimental data were critically analyzed and qualitatively correlated with results of T-pull mechanical tests in order to better understand and explain mechanical behavior in terms of fracture mode. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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14 pages, 2449 KiB  
Article
Bond–Slip Relationship for CFRP Sheets Externally Bonded to Concrete under Cyclic Loading
by Ke Li, Shuangyin Cao, Yue Yang and Juntao Zhu
Materials 2018, 11(3), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11030336 - 26 Feb 2018
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4308
Abstract
The objective of this paper was to explore the bond–slip relationship between carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets and concrete under cyclic loading through experimental and analytical approaches. Modified beam tests were performed in order to gain insight into the bond–slip relationship under static [...] Read more.
The objective of this paper was to explore the bond–slip relationship between carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets and concrete under cyclic loading through experimental and analytical approaches. Modified beam tests were performed in order to gain insight into the bond–slip relationship under static and cyclic loading. The test variables are the CFRP-to-concrete width ratio, and the bond length of the CFRP sheets. An analysis of the test results in this paper and existing test results indicated that the slope of the ascending segment of the bond–slip curve decreased with an increase in the number of load cycles, but the slip corresponding to the maximum shear stress was almost invariable as the number of load cycles increased. In addition, the rate of reduction in the slope of the ascending range of the bond–slip curve during cyclic loading decreased as the concrete strength increased, and increased as the load level or CFRP-to-concrete width ratio enhanced. However, these were not affected by variations in bond length if the residual bond length was longer than the effective bond length. A bilinear bond–slip model for CFRP sheets that are externally bonded to concrete under cyclic loading, which considered the effects of the cyclic load level, concrete strength, and CFRP-to-concrete ratio, was developed based on the existing static bond–slip model. The accuracy of this proposed model was verified by a comparison between this proposed model and test results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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19 pages, 6005 KiB  
Article
Modeling of Dynamic Behavior of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composite under X-ray Radiation
by Kun Zhang, Wenhui Tang and Kunkun Fu
Materials 2018, 11(1), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11010143 - 16 Jan 2018
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5785
Abstract
Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites have been increasingly used in spacecraft applications. Spacecraft may encounter highenergy-density X-ray radiation in outer space that can cause severe damage. To protect spacecraft from such unexpected damage, it is essential to predict the dynamic behavior of CFRP [...] Read more.
Carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites have been increasingly used in spacecraft applications. Spacecraft may encounter highenergy-density X-ray radiation in outer space that can cause severe damage. To protect spacecraft from such unexpected damage, it is essential to predict the dynamic behavior of CFRP composites under X-ray radiation. In this study, we developed an in-house three-dimensional explicit finite element (FEM) code to investigate the dynamic responses of CFRP composite under X-ray radiation for the first time, by incorporating a modified PUFF equation-of-state. First, the blow-off impulse (BOI) momentum of an aluminum panel was predicted by our FEM code and compared with an existing radiation experiment. Then, the FEM code was utilized to determine the dynamic behavior of a CFRP composite under various radiation conditions. It was found that the numerical result was comparable with the experimental one. Furthermore, the CFRP composite was more effective than the aluminum panel in reducing radiation-induced pressure and BOI momentum. The numerical results also revealed that a 1 keV X-ray led to vaporization of surface materials and a high-magnitude compressive stress wave, whereas a low-magnitude stress wave was generated with no surface vaporization when a 3 keV X-ray was applied. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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Review

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24 pages, 5583 KiB  
Review
A State-of-the-Art Review on Advanced Joining Processes for Metal-Composite and Metal-Polymer Hybrid Structures
by Francesco Lambiase, Silvia Ilaria Scipioni, Chan-Joo Lee, Dae-Cheol Ko and Fengchao Liu
Materials 2021, 14(8), 1890; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14081890 - 10 Apr 2021
Cited by 81 | Viewed by 7194
Abstract
Multi-materials of metal-polymer and metal-composite hybrid structures (MMHSs) are highly demanded in several fields including land, air and sea transportation, infrastructure construction, and healthcare. The adoption of MMHSs in transportation industries represents a pivotal opportunity to reduce the product’s weight without compromising structural [...] Read more.
Multi-materials of metal-polymer and metal-composite hybrid structures (MMHSs) are highly demanded in several fields including land, air and sea transportation, infrastructure construction, and healthcare. The adoption of MMHSs in transportation industries represents a pivotal opportunity to reduce the product’s weight without compromising structural performance. This enables a dramatic reduction in fuel consumption for vehicles driven by internal combustion engines as well as an increase in fuel efficiency for electric vehicles. The main challenge for manufacturing MMHSs lies in the lack of robust joining solutions. Conventional joining processes, e.g., mechanical fastening and adhesive bonding involve several issues. Several emerging technologies have been developed for MMHSs’ manufacturing. Different from recently published review articles where the focus is only on specific categories of joining processes, this review is aimed at providing a broader and systematic view of the emerging opportunities for hybrid thin-walled structure manufacturing. The present review paper discusses the main limitations of conventional joining processes and describes the joining mechanisms, the main differences, advantages, and limitations of new joining processes. Three reference clusters were identified: fast mechanical joining processes, thermomechanical interlocking processes, and thermomechanical joining processes. This new classification is aimed at providing a compass to better orient within the broad horizon of new joining processes for MMHSs with an outlook for future trends. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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15 pages, 3362 KiB  
Review
Assessment of Standards and Codes Dedicated to CFRP Confinement of RC Columns
by Stefan Kaeseberg, Dennis Messerer and Klaus Holschemacher
Materials 2019, 12(15), 2390; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12152390 - 26 Jul 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3770
Abstract
Reinforced concrete (RC) columns are often placed under confinement to increase their strength and ductility. Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) materials have recently been recognized as favorable confinement systems. At present, a number of national standards and codes dedicated to the design of [...] Read more.
Reinforced concrete (RC) columns are often placed under confinement to increase their strength and ductility. Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) materials have recently been recognized as favorable confinement systems. At present, a number of national standards and codes dedicated to the design of concrete components strengthened with CFRP in general and CFRP confinement in particular are available. These sets of rules provide design equations for confined reinforced concrete columns with circular and rectangular cross sections. Most of the standards and codes exhibit significant differences, including the used predictive models, limitations, observed effects and covered loading conditions. In this paper, five international standards and design guidelines are introduced and discussed. The purpose is to present a constructive and critical assessment of the state-of-the-art design methodologies available for CFRP confined RC columns and to discuss effects not previously considered properly. Therefore, some recent research efforts and findings from the Leipzig University of Applied Sciences are also introduced. The obtained data is used for a comparative study of the guideline predictive equations. Furthermore, it is shown that some new findings concerning the rupture strength and the maximum strength plus accompanying axial strain of a CFRP confined column are suitable to improve the current guidelines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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55 pages, 9679 KiB  
Review
Analytical Micromechanics Models for Elastoplastic Behavior of Long Fibrous Composites: A Critical Review and Comparative Study
by Yanchao Wang and ZhengMing Huang
Materials 2018, 11(10), 1919; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11101919 - 09 Oct 2018
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 7585
Abstract
Elasto-plastic models for composites can be classified into three categories in terms of a length scale, i.e., macro scale, meso scale, and micro scale (micromechanics) models. In general, a so-called multi-scale model is a combination of those at various length scales with a [...] Read more.
Elasto-plastic models for composites can be classified into three categories in terms of a length scale, i.e., macro scale, meso scale, and micro scale (micromechanics) models. In general, a so-called multi-scale model is a combination of those at various length scales with a micromechanics one as the foundation. In this paper, a critical review is made for the elastoplastic models at the micro scale, and a comparative study is carried out on most popular analytical micromechanics models for the elastoplastic behavior of long fibrous composites subjected to a static load, meaning that creep and dynamic response are not concerned. Each model has been developed essentially following three steps, i.e., an elastic homogenization, a rule to define the yielding of a constituent phase, and a linearization for the elastoplastic response. The comparison is made for all of the three aspects. Effects of other issues, such as the stress field fluctuation induced by a high contrast heterogeneity, the stress concentration factors in the matrix, and the different approaches to a plastic Eshelby tensor, are addressed as well. Correlation of the predictions by different models with available experimental data is shown. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers)
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