Electromagnetic Fields and Waves with Special Attention to Lightning Flashes

A special issue of Atmosphere (ISSN 2073-4433). This special issue belongs to the section "Meteorology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 August 2016) | Viewed by 76209

Special Issue Editors

Division for Electricity and Lightning Research, Uppsala University, 752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
Interests: lightning physics; physics of electrical discharges; lightning protection; electromagnetic field theory
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
EMC Laboratory, EPFL-SCI-STI-FR, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Station 11, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
Interests: electromagnetic compatibility; lightning electromagnetics; lightning and EMP interaction with transmission lines; numerical computation of electromagnetic fields and power line communications
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Electromagnetic field theory is utilized in studying almost all aspects of lightning flashes. For example, electromagnetic field theory is essential both in understanding the physics taking place inside the lightning channel and in understanding the interaction of lightning flashes with electrical power distribution and transmission systems. Over the years scientists have developed various techniques, both analytical and numerical, to apply Maxwell’s equations to study the electromagnetic effects of lightning flashes. Both lightning research and electromagnetic field theory have benefited from these exercises. This special issue deals with various aspects of electromagnetic field theory and their applications in lightning research. It invites papers that are of interest both for the electromagnetic theory research community and to the lightning research community. Ideally, the papers should illustrate how the electromagnetic field theory is applied in lightning research and how these applications in turn have led to a better understanding of the electromagnetic field theory.  

Prof. Dr. Vernon Cooray
Prof. Dr. Farhad Rachidi
Gust Editors

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Keywords

  • Classical electromagnetic field theory
  • Maxwell’s equations
  • Lightning flashes
  • Electromagnetic compatibility

 

Related References

Lightning Electromagnetics, Edited by V. Cooray, IET publishers, London, UK, 2012

Lightning, Authored by V. A. Rakov and M. A. Uman, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2003.

The lightning Flash (2nd edition), Edited by V. Cooray, IET publishers, London, UK, 2014.

Introduction to Lightning, Authored by V. Cooray, Springer publishers, Amsterdam, Holland, 2015.

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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4166 KiB  
Article
Total Lightning Flash Activity Response to Aerosol over China Area
by Pengguo Zhao, Yunjun Zhou, Hui Xiao, Jia Liu, Jinhui Gao and Fei Ge
Atmosphere 2017, 8(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos8020026 - 26 Jan 2017
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5757
Abstract
Twelve years of measurements of aerosol optical depth (AOD), cloud fraction, cloud top height, ice cloud optical thickness and lightning flash density from 2001 to 2012 have been analyzed to investigate the effect of aerosols on electrical activity over an area of China. [...] Read more.
Twelve years of measurements of aerosol optical depth (AOD), cloud fraction, cloud top height, ice cloud optical thickness and lightning flash density from 2001 to 2012 have been analyzed to investigate the effect of aerosols on electrical activity over an area of China. The results show that increasing aerosol loading inspires the convective intensity, and then increases the lightning flash density. The spatial distribution of the correlation between aerosol loading and electrical activity shows a remarkable regional difference over China. The high-correlation regions embody the positive aerosol microphysical effect on the intensity of the electrical activity, while the large-scale processes may play the main role in convection development and producing lightning in low-correlation regions. Full article
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2584 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Positive Cloud to Ground Flashes Observed in Indonesia
by Ariadi Hazmi, Primas Emeraldi, Muhammad Imran Hamid, Nobuyuki Takagi and Daohong Wang
Atmosphere 2017, 8(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos8010004 - 05 Jan 2017
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4238
Abstract
The characteristics of 77 electric field changes of positive cloud to ground (CG) flashes in the tropics of Indonesia were investigated. It was found that the arithmetic mean (AM) and geometric mean (GM) values for 0%–100% and 10%–90% rise time were 12.7 μs, [...] Read more.
The characteristics of 77 electric field changes of positive cloud to ground (CG) flashes in the tropics of Indonesia were investigated. It was found that the arithmetic mean (AM) and geometric mean (GM) values for 0%–100% and 10%–90% rise time were 12.7 μs, 11.9 μs and 6.1 μs, 5.8 μs, respectively. The percentages of single, double, and triple strokes of lightning flashes were 83% (64 cases), 16% (12 cases), and 1% (1 case), respectively. The AM and GM of the interstroke intervals and the return stroke (RS) amplitude ratios were 163.9 ms, 0.29, and 13.3 ms, 0.26, respectively. Furthermore, it was also found that 7 (9%) of 77 positive CG flashes had double peak return stroke waveforms with AM and GM values for 0%–100% and 10%–90% rise time of subsequent return strokes that were 6.7 μs, 6.4 μs and 4.1 μs, 4 μs, respectively. We inferred that these double peaks are produced by two ground terminations with a time interval varying from 7 to 560 μs. Full article
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1521 KiB  
Article
On the Momentum Transported by the Radiation Field of a Long Transient Dipole and Time Energy Uncertainty Principle
by Vernon Cooray and Gerald Cooray
Atmosphere 2016, 7(11), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7110151 - 23 Nov 2016
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4728
Abstract
The paper describes the net momentum transported by the transient electromagnetic radiation field of a long transient dipole in free space. In the dipole a current is initiated at one end and propagates towards the other end where it is absorbed. The results [...] Read more.
The paper describes the net momentum transported by the transient electromagnetic radiation field of a long transient dipole in free space. In the dipole a current is initiated at one end and propagates towards the other end where it is absorbed. The results show that the net momentum transported by the radiation is directed along the axis of the dipole where the currents are propagating. In general, the net momentum P transported by the electromagnetic radiation of the dipole is less than the quantity U / c , where U is the total energy radiated by the dipole and c is the speed of light in free space. In the case of a Hertzian dipole, the net momentum transported by the radiation field is zero because of the spatial symmetry of the radiation field. As the effective wavelength of the current decreases with respect to the length of the dipole (or the duration of the current decreases with respect to the travel time of the current along the dipole), the net momentum transported by the radiation field becomes closer and closer to U / c , and for effective wavelengths which are much shorter than the length of the dipole, P U / c . The results show that when the condition P U / c is satisfied, the radiated fields satisfy the condition Δ t Δ U h / 4 π where Δ t is the duration of the radiation, Δ U is the uncertainty in the dissipated energy and h is the Plank constant. Full article
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1826 KiB  
Article
A Methodology to Reduce the Computational Effort in the Evaluation of the Lightning Performance of Distribution Networks
by Ilaria Bendato, Massimo Brignone, Federico Delfino, Renato Procopio and Farhad Rachidi
Atmosphere 2016, 7(11), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7110147 - 20 Nov 2016
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3697
Abstract
The estimation of the lightning performance of a power distribution network is of great importance to design its protection system against lightning. An accurate evaluation of the number of lightning events that can create dangerous overvoltages requires a huge computational effort, as it [...] Read more.
The estimation of the lightning performance of a power distribution network is of great importance to design its protection system against lightning. An accurate evaluation of the number of lightning events that can create dangerous overvoltages requires a huge computational effort, as it implies the adoption of a Monte Carlo procedure. Such a procedure consists of generating many different random lightning events and calculating the corresponding overvoltages. The paper proposes a methodology to deal with the problem in two computationally efficient ways: (i) finding out the minimum number of Monte Carlo runs that lead to reliable results; and (ii) setting up a procedure that bypasses the lightning field-to-line coupling problem for each Monte Carlo run. The proposed approach is shown to provide results consistent with existing approaches while exhibiting superior Central Processing Unit (CPU) time performances. Full article
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3979 KiB  
Article
On Practical Implementation of Electromagnetic Models of Lightning Return-Strokes
by Hamidreza Karami, Farhad Rachidi and Marcos Rubinstein
Atmosphere 2016, 7(10), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7100135 - 19 Oct 2016
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4966
Abstract
In electromagnetic models, the return-stroke channel is represented as an antenna excited at its base by either a voltage or a current source. To adjust the speed of the current pulse propagating in the channel to available optical observations, different representations for the [...] Read more.
In electromagnetic models, the return-stroke channel is represented as an antenna excited at its base by either a voltage or a current source. To adjust the speed of the current pulse propagating in the channel to available optical observations, different representations for the return-stroke channel have been proposed in the literature using different techniques to artificially reduce the propagation speed of the current pulse to values consistent with observations. In this paper, we present an analysis of the available electromagnetic models in terms of their practical implementation. Criteria used for the analysis are the ease of implementation of the models, the numerical accuracy and the needed computer resources, as well as their ability to reproduce a desired value for the speed of the return stroke current pulse. Using the CST-MWS software, which is based on the time-domain finite-integration technique, different electromagnetic models were analyzed, namely (A) a wire embedded in a fictitious half-space dielectric medium (other than air), (B) a wire embedded in a fictitious coating with permittivity (εr) and permeability (μr), and (C) a wire in free-space loaded by distributed series inductance and resistance. It is shown that, by adjusting the parameters of each model, it is possible to reproduce a desired value for the speed of the current pulse. For each of the considered models, we determined the values for the adjustable parameters that allow obtaining the desired value of the return speed. Model A is the least expensive in terms of computing resources. However, it requires two simulation runs to obtain the electromagnetic fields. A variant of Model B that includes a fictitious dielectric/ferromagnetic coating is found to be more efficient to control the current speed along the channel than using only a dielectric coating. On the other hand, this model requires an increased number of mesh cells, resulting in higher memory and computational time. The presence of an inhomogeneous medium generates, in addition, unphysical fluctuations on the resulting current distributions. These fluctuations, which strongly depend on the size of the coating as well as on its electric and magnetic properties, can be attenuated by considering conductive losses in the coating. Considering the efficiency in terms of the required computer resources and ease of implementation, we recommend the use of Model C (wire loaded by distributed inductance and resistance). Full article
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4299 KiB  
Article
A Study of Preliminary Breakdown and Return Stroke Processes in High-Intensity Negative Lightning Discharges
by Yanan Zhu, Vladimir A. Rakov and Manh D. Tran
Atmosphere 2016, 7(10), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7100130 - 16 Oct 2016
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6094
Abstract
Using an automated data processing algorithm, we examined electric field records of 5498 negative cloud-to-ground flashes reported by the U.S. National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) within 50 to 500 km of the Lightning Observatory in Gainesville (LOG), Florida. Out of the 5498 flashes, [...] Read more.
Using an automated data processing algorithm, we examined electric field records of 5498 negative cloud-to-ground flashes reported by the U.S. National Lightning Detection Network (NLDN) within 50 to 500 km of the Lightning Observatory in Gainesville (LOG), Florida. Out of the 5498 flashes, 3496 (64%) had detectable preliminary breakdown (PB) pulse trains. Only 3077 flashes with a single PB pulse train and NLDN-reported first-return-stroke (RS) peak current ≥50 kA were selected for detailed analysis. The arithmetic mean values of PB pulse train duration, PB-RS interval, and PB/RS pulse peak ratio were 2.7 ms, 8.8 ms, and 0.15, respectively. The PB-RS interval was found to decrease with increasing RS peak current (Spearman correlation coefficient was statistically significant and equal to −0.80). The range-normalized PB pulse peak exhibited statistically significant positive correlation with the RS peak current, with Spearman correlation coefficient being 0.48. Thus, it appears that the high-intensity (≥50 kA) negative lightning is characterized by shorter (and, by inference, faster) stepped leaders and more pronounced PB pulse trains. Full article
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3605 KiB  
Article
Horizontal Electric Field in the Vicinity of Structures Hit by Lightning
by Celio Fonseca Barbosa
Atmosphere 2016, 7(9), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7090115 - 09 Sep 2016
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4267
Abstract
The horizontal electric field at the ground surface in the vicinity of structures hit by lightning flashes is relevant to the safety of human beings and livestock; it determines the touch and step voltages around the structure. This paper uses an approximate analytical [...] Read more.
The horizontal electric field at the ground surface in the vicinity of structures hit by lightning flashes is relevant to the safety of human beings and livestock; it determines the touch and step voltages around the structure. This paper uses an approximate analytical formula for calculating the horizontal electric field, which was adapted to take into account the effect of the structure foundation. The input for the calculation is the current waveform at the base of the structure, and the results agree well with those obtained by other authors using the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method. The approximate formula is applied to calculate touch and step voltages in the vicinity of a structure and the results show that the use of the direct current (DC) approximation to calculate touch and step voltages may lead to significant errors; especially for fast-rising currents and relatively good-conducting soils. This means that DC approximation could be used for positive first stroke and poor-conducting ground (ρ ≥ 1000 Ω∙m), but cannot be used for subsequent strokes and good-conducting ground (ρ ≤ 100 Ω∙m). Moreover, step voltages differ more from the DC approximation than the touch voltages. Full article
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5132 KiB  
Article
An FDTD Study of Errors in Magnetic Direction Finding of Lightning Due to the Presence of Conducting Structure Near the Field Measuring Station
by Yosuke Suzuki, Shohei Araki, Yoshihiro Baba, Toshihiro Tsuboi, Shigemitsu Okabe and Vladimir A. Rakov
Atmosphere 2016, 7(7), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7070092 - 15 Jul 2016
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4505
Abstract
Lightning electromagnetic fields in the presence of conducting (grounded) structure having a height of 60 m and a square cross-section of 40 m × 40 m within about 100 m of the observation point are analyzed using the 3D finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method. [...] Read more.
Lightning electromagnetic fields in the presence of conducting (grounded) structure having a height of 60 m and a square cross-section of 40 m × 40 m within about 100 m of the observation point are analyzed using the 3D finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method. Influence of the conducting structure on the two orthogonal components of magnetic field is analyzed, and resultant errors in the estimated lightning azimuth are evaluated. Influences of ground conductivity and lightning current waveshape parameters are also examined. When the azimuth vector passes through the center of conducting structure diagonally (e.g., azimuth angle is 45°) or parallel to its walls (e.g., azimuth angle is 0°), the presence of conducting structure equally influences Hx and Hy, so that Hx/Hy is the same as in the absence of structure. Therefore, no azimuth error occurs in those configurations. When the conducting structure is not located on the azimuth vector, the structure influences Hx and Hy differently, with the resultant direction finding error being greater when the structure is located closer to the observation point. Full article
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3459 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of Preliminary Breakdown Pulses in Positive Ground Flashes during Summer Thunderstorms in Sweden
by Dalina Johari, Vernon Cooray, Mahbubur Rahman, Pasan Hettiarachchi and Mohd Muzafar Ismail
Atmosphere 2016, 7(3), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7030039 - 10 Mar 2016
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6135
Abstract
This paper presents the characteristics of the preliminary breakdown pulses (PBP) in 51 positive ground flashes recorded during 2014 summer thunderstorms in Sweden. Electric field measurements were conducted remotely using a broadband antenna system (up to 100 MHz) for a recording length of [...] Read more.
This paper presents the characteristics of the preliminary breakdown pulses (PBP) in 51 positive ground flashes recorded during 2014 summer thunderstorms in Sweden. Electric field measurements were conducted remotely using a broadband antenna system (up to 100 MHz) for a recording length of 1 s with 200 ms trigger time. In the analysis, PBP trains were observed in 86% of the cases. Based on the number of trains preceding the first return stroke, the PBP were classified into single and multiple train PBP. Characteristics of the first PBP train were determined and based on the initial polarity of the pulses, three types of PBP were identified. Characteristics of the subsequent PBP trains in the multiple train PBP were also analyzed and they were compared with the first PBP train. Based on the conceptual charge cloud configuration, we found that the inverted dipole is consistent with our observation. We also found that PBP in positive ground flashes during summer thunderstorms in Sweden are weak since the average ratios of the PBP peak to the first return stroke peak lie only between 0.21 and 0.26. Possible reasons for no detection of PBP and the different types of PBP observed were also discussed. Full article
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5108 KiB  
Article
The Deep Physics Hidden within the Field Expressions of the Radiation Fields of Lightning Return Strokes
by Vernon Cooray and Gerald Cooray
Atmosphere 2016, 7(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7020021 - 30 Jan 2016
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4374 | Correction
Abstract
Based on the electromagnetic fields generated by a current pulse propagating from one point in space to another, a scenario that is frequently used to simulate return strokes in lightning flashes, it is shown that there is a deep physical connection between the [...] Read more.
Based on the electromagnetic fields generated by a current pulse propagating from one point in space to another, a scenario that is frequently used to simulate return strokes in lightning flashes, it is shown that there is a deep physical connection between the electromagnetic energy dissipated by the system, the time over which this energy is dissipated and the charge associated with the current. For a given current pulse, the product of the energy dissipated and the time over which this energy is dissipated, defined as action in this paper, depends on the length of the channel, or the path, through which the current pulse is propagating. As the length of the channel varies, the action plotted against the length of the channel exhibits a maximum value. The location of the maximum value depends on the ratio of the length of the channel to the characteristic length of the current pulse. The latter is defined as the product of the duration of the current pulse and the speed of propagation of the current pulse. The magnitude of this maximum depends on the charge associated with the current pulse. The results show that when the charge associated with the current pulse approaches the electronic charge, the value of this maximum reaches a value close to h/8π where h is the Plank constant. From this result, one can deduce that the time-energy uncertainty principle is the reason for the fact that the smallest charge that can be detected from the electromagnetic radiation is equal to the electronic charge. Since any system that generates electromagnetic radiation can be represented by a current pulse propagating from one point in space to another, the result is deemed valid for electromagnetic radiation fields in general. Full article
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Review

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3905 KiB  
Review
ELF Electromagnetic Waves from Lightning: The Schumann Resonances
by Colin Price
Atmosphere 2016, 7(9), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7090116 - 15 Sep 2016
Cited by 55 | Viewed by 19346
Abstract
Lightning produces electromagnetic fields and waves in all frequency ranges. In the extremely low frequency (ELF) range below 100 Hz, the global Schumann Resonances (SR) are excited at frequencies of 8 Hz, 14 Hz, 20 Hz, etc. This review is aimed at the [...] Read more.
Lightning produces electromagnetic fields and waves in all frequency ranges. In the extremely low frequency (ELF) range below 100 Hz, the global Schumann Resonances (SR) are excited at frequencies of 8 Hz, 14 Hz, 20 Hz, etc. This review is aimed at the reader generally unfamiliar with the Schumann Resonances. First some historical context to SR research is given, followed by some theoretical background and examples of the extensive use of Schumann resonances in a variety of lightning-related studies in recent years, ranging from estimates of the spatial and temporal variations in global lighting activity, connections to global climate change, transient luminous events and extraterrestrial lightning. Both theoretical and experimental results of the global resonance phenomenon are presented. It is our hope that this review will increase the interest in SR among researchers previously unfamiliar with this phenomenon. Full article
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Other

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226 KiB  
Letter
On the Action of the Radiation Field Generated by a Traveling-Wave Element and Its Connection to the Time Energy Uncertainty Principle, Elementary Charge and the Fine Structure Constant
by Vernon Cooray and Gerald Cooray
Atmosphere 2017, 8(3), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos8030046 - 24 Feb 2017
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 3873
Abstract
Recently, we published two papers in this journal. One of the papers dealt with the action of the radiation fields generated by a traveling-wave element and the other dealt with the momentum transferred by the same radiation fields and their connection to the [...] Read more.
Recently, we published two papers in this journal. One of the papers dealt with the action of the radiation fields generated by a traveling-wave element and the other dealt with the momentum transferred by the same radiation fields and their connection to the time energy uncertainty principle. The traveling-wave element is defined as a conductor through which a current pulse propagates with the speed of light in free space from one end of the conductor to the other without attenuation. The goal of this letter is to combine the information provided in these two papers together and make conclusive statements concerning the connection between the energy dissipated by the radiation fields, the time energy uncertainty principle and the elementary charge. As we will show here, the results presented in these two papers, when combined together, show that the time energy uncertainty principle can be applied to the classical radiation emitted by a traveling-wave element and it results in the prediction that the smallest charge associated with the current that can be detected using radiated energy as a vehicle is on the order of the elementary charge. Based on the results, an expression for the fine structure constant is obtained. This is the first time that an order of magnitude estimation of the elementary charge based on electromagnetic radiation fields is obtained. Even though the results obtained in this paper have to be considered as order of magnitude estimations, a strict interpretation of the derived equations shows that the fine structure constant or the elementary charge may change as the size or the age of the universe increases. Full article
157 KiB  
Correction
Correction: Cooray et al. The Deep Physics Hidden within the Field Expressions of the Radiation Fields of Lightning Return Strokes. Atmosphere, 2016, 7, 21.
by Vernon Cooray and Gerald Cooray
Atmosphere 2016, 7(3), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos7030041 - 10 Mar 2016
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3108
Abstract
The authors would like to correct the published article [1] as follows.[...] Full article
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