Geosciences, Volume 9, Issue 7 (July 2019) – 45 articles

Digital elevation model (DEM) has been frequently used for the reduction and management of flood risk. Various classification methods have been developed to extract DEM from point clouds. However, the accuracy and computational efficiency need to be improved. The objectives of this study were as follows: (1) to determine the suitability of a new method to produce DEM from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data, using a raw point cloud classification and ground point filtering based on deep learning and neural networks (NN); (2) to test the convenience of rebalancing datasets for point cloud classification; (3) to evaluate the effect of the land cover class on the algorithm performance and the elevation accuracy; and (4) to assess the usability of the LiDAR and UAV structure from motion (SfM) DEM in flood risk mapping. In this paper, a new method of raw point cloud classification and ground point filtering based on deep learning using NN is proposed and tested on LiDAR and UAV data. The NN was trained on approximately 6 million points from which local and global geometric features and intensity data were extracted. Pixel-by-pixel accuracy assessment and visual inspection confirmed that filtering point clouds based on deep learning using NN is an appropriate technique for ground classification and producing DEM, as for the test and validation areas, both ground and non-ground classes achieved high recall (>0.70) and high precision values (>0.85), which showed that the two classes were well handled by the model. The type of method used for balancing the original dataset did not have a significant influence in the algorithm accuracy, and it was suggested not to use any of them unless the distribution of the generated and real data set will remain the same. Furthermore, the comparisons between true data and LiDAR and a UAV structure from motion (UAV SfM) point clouds were analyzed, as well as the derived DEM. The root mean square error (RMSE) and the mean average error (MAE) of the DEM were 0.25 m and 0.05 m, respectively, for LiDAR data, and 0.59 m and –0.28 m, respectively, for UAV data. For all land cover classes, the UAV DEM overestimated the elevation, whereas the LIDAR DEM underestimated it. The accuracy was not significantly different in the LiDAR DEM for the different vegetation classes, while for the UAV DEM, the RMSE increased with the height of the vegetation class. The comparison of the inundation areas derived from true LiDAR and UAV data for different water levels showed that in all cases, the largest differences were obtained for the lowest water level tested, while they performed best for very high water levels. Overall, the approach presented in this work produced DEM from LiDAR and UAV data with the required accuracy for flood mapping according to European Flood Directive standards. Although LiDAR is the recommended technology for point cloud acquisition, a suitable alternative is also UAV SfM in hilly areas. Full article

Surface roughness is a terrain parameter that has been widely applied to the study of geomorphological processes. One of the main challenges in studying roughness is its highly scale-dependent nature. Determining appropriate mapping scales in topographically heterogenous landscapes can be difficult. A method is presented for estimating multiscale surface roughness based on the standard deviation of surface normals. This method utilizes scale partitioning and integral image processing to isolate scales of surface complexity. The computational efficiency of the method enables high scale sampling density and identification of maximum roughness for each grid cell in a digital elevation model (DEM). The approach was applied to a 0.5 m resolution LiDAR DEM of a 210 km² area near Brantford, Canada. The case study demonstrated substantial heterogeneity in roughness properties. At shorter scales, tillage patterns and other micro-topography associated with ground beneath forest cover dominated roughness scale signatures. Extensive agricultural land-use resulted in 35.6% of the site exhibiting maximum roughness at micro-topographic scales. At larger spatial scales, rolling morainal topography and fluvial landforms, including incised channels and meander cut banks, were associated with maximum surface roughness. This method allowed for roughness mapping at spatial scales that are locally adapted to the topographic context of each individual grid cell within a DEM. Furthermore, the analysis revealed significant differences in roughness characteristics among soil texture categories, demonstrating the practical utility of locally adaptive, scale-optimized roughness. Full article

Lower Eocene fluvial strata in the Chuckanut Formation preserve abundant bird and mammal tracks. Reptile trace fossils include footprints from a small turtle (ichnogenus Chelonipus), and several Crocodylian trackways that consist of irregularly spaced footprints associated with linear tail drag marks. The latter trackways represent “punting” locomotion, where a submerged Crocodylian used intermittent substrate contacts to provide forward motion of their neutrally buoyant bodies. Two adjacent sandstone blocks preserve Crocodylian trace fossils that are named herein as a new ichnogenus and ichnospecies Anticusuchipes amnis. Two other Crocodylian trackways lack sufficient detail for ichnotaxonomic assignment. Full article

Jupiter’s moon Ganymede might be in possession of a subsurface ocean located between two ice layers. However, from Galileo data it is not possible to unambiguously infer the thickness and densities of the individual layers. The upcoming icy satellite mission JUICE (JUpiter ICy moons Explorer) will have the possibility to perform more detailed investigations of Ganymede’s interior structure with the radio science experiment 3GM and the GAnymede Laser Altimeter (GALA). Here we investigate the possibility to derive the rotational state of the outer ice shell by using topography measured by laser altimetry. We discuss two different methods to invert synthetic laser altimetry data. Method 1 is based on a spherical harmonics expansion and Method 2 solves for B-splines on a rectangular grid. While Method 1 has significant limitations due to the omission of high degrees of the global expansion, Method 2 leads to stable results allowing for an estimate of the in-orbit measurement accuracy. We estimate that GALA can measure the amplitude of Ganymede’s librations with an accuracy of 2.5–6.6 $\mathsf{\mu }$ rad (6.6–17.4 m at the equator). This allows for determining the thickness of an elastic ice shell, if decoupled from the deeper interior by a subsurface ocean, to about an accuracy of 24–65 km. Full article

Rock brittleness is pivotal in the development of the unconventional reservoirs. However, the existence of various methods of calculating the brittleness index (BI) such as the mineral-based brittleness index (MBI), the log-based brittleness index (LBI), and the elastic-based brittleness index (EBI) lead to inconclusive estimations of the brittleness index. Hence, in this work, the existing correlations are applied on prolific unconventional plays in the U.S. such as the Marcellus, Bakken, Niobrara, and Chattanooga Formation to examine the various BI methods. A detailed comparison between the MBI, LBI, and EBI has also been conducted. The results show that a universal correlation cannot be derived in order to define brittleness since it is a function of lithology. Correlation parameters vary significantly from one shale play to another. Nevertheless, an overall trend shows that abundant quartz and carbonates content yield high brittleness values, while the high clay content and porosity lower the rock brittleness. Full article

Using δ¹⁸O and δ²H in mean transit time (MTT) modeling can ensure the verifiability of results across catchments. The main objectives of this study were to (i) evaluate the δ¹⁸O- and δ²H-based behavioral transit time distributions and (ii) assess if δ¹⁸O and δ²H-based MTTs can lead to similar conclusions about catchment hydrologic functioning. A volume weighted δ¹⁸O (or δ²H) time series of sampled precipitation was used as an input variable in a 50,000 Monte Carlo (MC) time-based convolution modeling process. An observed streamflow δ¹⁸O (or δ²H) time series was used to calibrate the model to obtain the simulated time series of δ¹⁸O (or δ²H) of the streamflow within a nested system of eight Prairie catchments in Canada. The model efficiency was assessed via a generalized likelihood uncertainty estimation by setting a minimum Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency threshold of 0.3 for behavioral parameter sets. Results show that the percentage of behavioral parameter sets across both tracers were lower than 50 at the majority of the studied outlets; a phenomenon hypothesized to have resulted from the number of MC runs. Tracer-based verifiability of results could be achieved within five of the eight studied outlets during the model process. The flow process in those five outlets were mainly of a shallow subsurface flow as opposed to the other three outlets, which experienced other additional flow dynamics. The potential impacts of this study on the integrated use of δ¹⁸O and δ²H in catchment water storage and release dynamics must be further investigated in multiple catchments within various hydro-physiographic settings across the world. Full article

Mass evacuation should be conducted when a disaster threatens within a regional scale. It is reported that 400,000 people were evacuated during the last eruption of Merapi Volcano in 2010. Such a large-scale evacuation can lead to chaos or congestion, unless well managed. Staged evacuation has been investigated as a solution to reducing the degree of chaos during evacuation processes. However, there is a limited conception of how the stages should be ordered in terms of which group should move first and which group should follow. This paper proposes to develop evacuation stage ordering based on the geographical character of the people at risk and examine the ordering scenarios through an agent-based model of evacuation. We use several geographical features, such as proximity to the hazard, road network conditions (accessibility), size of the population, and demographics as the parameters for ranking the order of each population unit in GIS. From this concept, we produced several scenarios of ranking based on different weightings of the parameters. We applied the scenarios in an agent-based model of volcanic evacuation experiment to observe the results. Afterwards, the results were evaluated based on the ability to reduce the risk and spatio-temporal traffic density along road networks compared to the result of simultaneous evacuation to establish the relative effectiveness of the outcome. The result shows that the staged scenario has a better ability to reduce the potential traffic congestion during the peak time of the evacuation compared to the simultaneous strategy. However, the simultaneous strategy has better performance regarding the speed of reducing the risk. An evaluation of the relative performance of the four varying staged scenarios is also presented and discussed in this paper. Full article

Although the thermal effect of large salt tongues and allochthonous salt sheets in passive margins is described in the literature, little is known about the thermal effect of salt structures in confined rift basins where sub-vertical, closely spaced salt diapirs may affect the thermal evolution and petroleum system of the basin. In this study, we combine 2D structural restorations with thermal modeling to investigate the dynamic history of salt movement and its thermal effect in the Nordkapp Basin, a confined salt-bearing basin in the Norwegian Barents Sea. Two sections, one across the central sub-basin and another across the eastern sub-basin, are modeled. The central sub-basin shows deeply rooted, narrow and closely spaced diapirs, while the eastern sub-basin contains a shallower rooted, wide, isolated diapir. Variations through time in stratigraphy (source rocks), structures (salt diapirs and minibasins), and thermal boundary conditions (basal heat flow and sediment-water interface temperatures) are considered in the model. Present-day bottom hole temperatures and vitrinite data provide validation of the model. The modeling results in the eastern sub-basin show a strong but laterally limited thermal anomaly associated with the massive diapir, where temperatures in the diapir are 70 °C cooler than in the adjacent minibasins. In the central sub-basin, the thermal anomalies of closely-spaced diapirs mutually interfere and induce a combined anomaly that reduces the temperature in the minibasins by up to 50 °C with respect to the platform areas. Consequently, source rock maturation in the areas thermally affected by the diapirs is retarded, and the hydrocarbon generation window is expanded. Although subject to uncertainties in the model input parameters, these results demonstrate new exploration concepts (e.g., deep hydrocarbon kitchens) that are important for evaluating the prospectivity of the Nordkapp Basin and similar basins around the world. Full article

Constantine city, Algeria, and its surroundings have always been affected by natural and human-induced slope instability and subsidence. Neogene clay-conglomeratic formations, which form the largest part of Constantine city, are extremely sensitive to the presence of water, which makes them susceptible to landslides. Fast and accurate identification and monitoring of the main areas facing existing or potential hazardous risks at a regional scale, as well as measuring the amount of displacement is essential for the conservation and sustainable development of Constantine. In the last three decades, the application of radar interferometry techniques for the measurement of millimeter-level terrain motions has become one of the most powerful tools for ground deformation monitoring due to its large coverage and low costs. Persistent scatterer interferometry (PS-InSAR) has a demonstrated potential for monitoring a range of hazard event scenarios and tracking their spatiotemporal evolution. We demonstrate the efficiency of Sentinel-1 data for deformation monitoring in Constantine located in the northeast of Algeria, and how an array of information such as geological maps and ground-measurements are integrated for deformation mapping. We conclude this article with a discussion of the potential of advanced differential radar interferometry approaches and their applicability for structural and ground deformation monitoring, including the advantages and challenges of these approaches in the north of Algeria. Full article

Satellite-based Emergency Mapping (SEM) mechanisms provide information for emergency response in relation to different types of disasters, including tsunamis, based on the analysis of satellite imagery acquired in the aftermath of an event. One of the main critical aspects of a SEM service is the timeliness in providing relevant information in the hours following the event. The availability of a relevant post-event image is crucial; therefore, satellite sensors need to be programmed as soon as possible. The integration of a tsunami alerting system, like the one offered by the Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System (GDACS), can be highly beneficial in a SEM mechanism for streamlining and accelerating the satellite programming task and for generating first damage estimates. The GDACS tsunami model is validated using tidal gauge data and a post-event field survey. Tsunami model outputs are then exploited to automatically identify areas of interest to be used for immediate satellite acquisition triggering. Three alternative operational integration approaches are proposed, described and discussed, taking as use case the tsunami that struck the central Chilean coast after the 8.3 magnitude earthquake on 16 September 2015. Full article

Recent studies using satellite data have shown a growing interest in detecting and anticipating landslide failures. However, their value for an actual landslide prediction has shown variable results. Therefore, the use of satellite images for that purpose still requires additional attention. Here, we study the landslide of the Tunnel du Chambon in the French Alps that ruptured in July 2015, generating major impacts on economic activity and infrastructures. To evaluate the contribution of very high-resolution optical satellite images to characterize and potentially anticipate the landslide failure, we conduct here a retro analysis of its evolution. Two time periods are analyzed: September 2012 to September 2014, and May to July 2015. We combine Pléiades optical images analysis and geodetic measurements from in situ topographic monitoring. Satellite images were correlated to detect pre-failure motions, showing 1.4-m of displacement between September 2012 and September 2014. In situ geodetic measures were used to analyze motions during the main activity of the landslide in June and July 2015. Topographic measurements highlight different areas of deformations and two periods of strong activity, related to the last stage of the tertiary creep and to anthropic massive purges of unstable masses. The law of acceleration toward the rupture observed in June and July 2015 over the topographic targets also fits well the satellite observation between 2012 and 2014, showing that the landslide probably already entered into tertiary creep 2.5 years before its failure. Full article

The city of Ivanec is located between valley of the Bednja River and Mt. Ivanščica and this area can be prone to significant seismic site amplification due to local site characteristics. This study presents the first assessment of seismic site amplification for the city of Ivanec by the microtremor horizontal-to-vertical-spectral-ratio (HVSR) method and the equivalent-linear (EQL) site response analysis. Based on microtremor measurements and HVSR analysis, fundamental soil frequency and HVSR peak amplitude maps indicate potentially seismic danger zones. The 1-D EQL site response analysis was performed using multiple suites of earthquake ground motions scaled to the 95- and 475-year return periods of peak ground accelerations. Site amplification maps at the predominant peak frequency and ground surface indicate two microzones, one with high amplification in the central part of the city due to soft soil characteristics, and the other with small amplification in the transitional zone from alluvial basin towards the foothills of Mt. Ivanščica. HVSR peak amplitudes and site response peak amplifications showed similar spatial distributions with similar predominant peak frequencies but with different amplitude levels. Site amplification maps provided significant information about potential resonance effects for structures of certain heights that can be correlated with the local ground shaking characteristics. Full article

Recent and historical studies of earthquake-induced liquefaction, as well as paleoliquefaction studies, demonstrate the potential usefulness of liquefaction data in the assessment of the earthquake potential of seismic sources. Paleoliquefaction studies, along with other paleoseismology studies, supplement historical and instrumental seismicity and provide information about the long-term behavior of earthquake sources. Paleoliquefaction studies focus on soft-sediment deformation features, including sand blows and sand dikes, which result from strong ground shaking. Most paleoliquefaction studies have been conducted in intraplate geologic settings, but a few such studies have been carried out in interplate settings. Paleoliquefaction studies provide information about timing, location, magnitude, and recurrence of large paleoearthquakes, particularly those with moment magnitude, M, greater than 6 during the past 50,000 years. This review paper presents background information on earthquake-induced liquefaction and resulting soft-sediment deformation features that may be preserved in the geologic record, best practices used in paleoliquefaction studies, and application of paleoliquefaction data in earthquake source characterization. The paper concludes with two examples of regional paleoliquefaction studies—in the Charleston seismic zone and the New Madrid seismic zone in the southeastern and central United States, respectively—which contributed to seismic source models used in earthquake hazard assessment. Full article

A dense cabled observation network, called the seafloor observation network for earthquakes and tsunami along the Japan Trench (S-net), was installed in Japan. This study aimed to develop a near-real time tsunami source estimation technique using the ocean bottom pressure data observed at those sensors in S-net. Synthetic pressure waveforms at those sensors were computed for 64 earthquake tsunami scenarios with magnitude ranging between M8.0 and M8.8. The pressure waveforms within a time window of 500 s after an earthquake were classified into three types. Type 1 has the following pressure waveform characteristic: the pressure decreases and remains low; sensors exhibiting waveforms associated with Type 1 are located inside a co-seismic uplift area. The pressure waveform characteristic of Type 2 is that one up-pulse of a wave is within the time window; sensors exhibiting waveforms associated with Type 2 are located at the edge of the co-seismic uplift area. The other pressure waveforms are classified as Type 3. Subsequently, we developed a method to estimate the uplift area using those three classifications of pressure waveforms at sensors in S-net and a method to estimate earthquake magnitude from the estimated uplift area using a regression line. We systematically applied those methods for two cases of previous large earthquakes: the 1952 Tokachi-oki earthquake (Mw8.2) and the 1968 Tokachi-oki earthquake (Mw8.1). The locations of the large computed uplift areas of the earthquakes were well defined by the estimated ones. The estimated magnitudes of the 1952 and 1968 Tokachi-oki earthquakes from the estimated uplift area were 8.2 and 7.9, respectively; they are almost consistent with the moment magnitudes derived from the source models. Those results indicate that the tsunami source estimation method developed in this study can be used for near-real time tsunami forecasts. Full article

Geomorphological evolution, erosion and retreat processes that affect the rocky coasts of the mid-western Adriatic Sea (Abruzzo, Central Italy) are the subject of this research. This coastal sector, one of the few examples of clastic soft rock coasts in the Mediterranean Sea, is characterized by active, inactive and paleo cliffs, as well as coastal slopes, composed of the clayey-sandy-arenaceous-conglomeratic marine sequence (Early-Middle Pleistocene) covered by continental deposits (Late Pleistocene-Holocene). This study provides geomorphological and 3D modelling stability analyses of the cliffs of Torre Mucchia, Punta Lunga, Punta Ferruccio (Ortona, CH) and Punta Aderci (Vasto, CH), which are popular tourist sites included in natural reserve areas. They are representative of two main types of active cliffs on soft clastic rocks: cliffs on sandstone and cliffs on conglomerate with notches. In order to evaluate the processes and factors that induce cliffs to retreat and their recent evolution, the research was based on a DEM analysis (LIDAR 2 × 2 m data), aerial photos and an orthoimages interpretation, detailed geological–geomorphological surveys, and a structural analysis; field and remote investigations were combined with numerical modelling with a FLAC3D calculation code. Geological and geomorphological field data provided reliable 3D models, and FLAC3D numerical analyses allowed the definition of the most critical and/or failure areas, and the evaluation of the controlling factors, evolution mechanisms of the slopes and the sliding kinematics of gravitational instability phenomena. Different retreat mechanisms have been observed all along the investigated coastal sectors, induced by gravitational processes due to coastal erosion cycles at the foot of the cliffs, and controlled by lithological features and joints systems. The geomorphological analysis combined with the 3D modelling (i) showed that the retreat process of the cliffs is connected to translational slides and rockfalls (cliffs on sandstone), combined rockfalls, and topples (cliffs on conglomerate), largely controlled by main joints; (ii) defined the most critical areas along the cliffs. These results are of great interest in the assessment of hazard connected to potential sliding on the cliffs. Their implementation within Geographical Information Systems provides a valuable contribution to the integrated management of coastal areas, strongly improving the identification and prediction of landscape changes and supporting a new geomorphological hazards assessment, in areas of high tourism, as well as natural and cultural landscape value. Full article

In this paper, we suggest two machine learning methods for seismic hazard forecast. The first method is used for spatial forecasting of maximum possible earthquake magnitudes ( $M_{max}$ ), whereas the second is used for spatio-temporal forecasting of strong earthquakes. The first method, the method of approximation of interval expert estimates, is based on a regression approach in which values of $M_{max}$ at the points of the training sample are estimated by experts. The method allows one to formalize the knowledge of experts, to find the dependence of $M_{max}$ on the properties of the geological environment, and to construct a map of the spatial forecast. The second method, the method of minimum area of alarm, uses retrospective data to identify the alarm area in which the epicenters of strong (target) earthquakes are expected at a certain time interval. This method is the basis of an automatic web-based platform that systematically forecasts target earthquakes. The results of testing the approach to earthquake prediction in the Mediterranean and Californian regions are presented. For the tests, well known parameters of earthquake catalogs were used. The method showed a satisfactory forecast quality. Full article

The geodetic point fields play a crucial role in measuring a terrain, in surveying, and mapping applications. Due to the rapid development in the domain of information technologies, it makes sense to consider using the database and web technologies to manage and disseminate the available information about the geodetic point fields. The paper presents the creation of a spatial database which integrates the information about the various kinds of established geodetic point fields (horizontal, vertical and gravitational) with the aim of enabling their effective management. Furthermore, based on the integrated spatial database, the prototype of the new information system of geodetic point fields has been developed. The functionality of the prototype also considers the requirements coming from the international efforts, i.e., the Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Europe (INSPIRE) directive. The prototype, based on Java Enterprise Edition (EE) technology, implements the features reflecting the cyber-security issues and ensures the modularity and scalability of the system, which is important for further development of the system and dissemination and accessibility of the information about the geodetic point fields via modern web technologies. Full article

To estimate the potential inventory of natural gas hydrates (NGH) in the Levant Basin, southeastern Mediterranean Sea, we correlated the gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ), modeled with local thermodynamic parameters, with seismic indicators of gas. A compilation of the oceanographic measurements defines the >1 km deep water temperature and salinity to 13.8 °C and 38.8‰ respectively, predicting the top GHSZ at a water depth of ~1250 m. Assuming sub-seafloor hydrostatic pore-pressure, water-body salinity, and geothermal gradients ranging between 20 to 28.5 °C/km, yields a useful first-order GHSZ approximation. Our model predicts that the entire northwestern half of the Levant seafloor lies within the GHSZ, with a median sub-seafloor thickness of ~150 m. High amplitude seismic reflectivity (HASR), correlates with the active seafloor gas seepage and is distributed across the deep-sea fan of the Nile within the Levant Basin. Trends observed in the distribution of the HASR are suggested to represent: (1) Shallow gas and possibly hydrates within buried channel-lobe systems 25 to 100 mbsf; and (2) a regionally discontinuous bottom simulating reflection (BSR) broadly matching the modeled base of GHSZ. We therefore estimate the potential methane hydrates resources within the Levant Basin at ~100 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) and its carbon content at ~1.5 gigatonnes. Full article

Damages caused by earthquake-induced ground effects can be of the order or significantly exceed the expected damages from ground shaking. A new probabilistic technique is considered in this study for earthquake-induced landslide risk assessment. A fully probabilistic technique suggests a multi-stage hazard assessment. These stages include the determination of seismic hazard curves and landslide probabilistic models, a vulnerability assessment, and geotechnical investigations. At each of the stages, the uncertainties should be carefully analyzed. A logic tree technique, which handles all available models and parameters, was used in the study. The method was applied considering child education facilities located at the foot of a natural slope in the south of Sakhalin Island which is known as an active seismic and land sliding area. The significant differences in the ground motion scenario in terms of the 475-year seismic hazard map and the fully probabilistic approach considered suggests that seismic landslide risk could be underestimated or overestimated when using the 475-year seismic hazard map for risk assessment. The given approach follows the rational risk management idea that handles well all possible ground motion scenarios, slope models, and parameters. The authors suggest that the given approach can improve geotechnical studies of slope stability. Full article

Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) has been used in various studies related to interpreting the direction of lava flow, some of which have shown ambiguity with regard to the data generated. In this study, we explored an alternative option to support the aforementioned application, using lava flow type igneous rock samples from the Ijen Volcanic Complex, East Java, Indonesia. We have investigated the preferred rock pore orientations from micro-computed tomography (μCT) images and quantified their directions. We then calculated their correlation with AMS data by calculating the angle between preferred pore orientation. The axis with the smallest gap to the preferred pore orientation of each sample was assumed to imply lava flow direction. Different lava flow direction preferences were obtained from different magnetic ellipsoids. Another important factor for consideration is the relative vertical position of the sampling site within a single lava flow unit. Only one out of five samples (ANY2) show good quantitative conformity between AMS data, preferred pore orientation, and topographical slope, despite these limitations. Our results point to a direction that seems to be correct and coherent on a physical basis. Additional research would likely clarify the issues involved. This encourages us to explore and work further in this field of research. Full article

The development of modern technologies and accessibility of data on space and the natural environment has led to their increasing use for socio-economic purposes. Data users believe that these systems reflect the reality in the field. This applies in particular to databases used for construction investment projects or as the basis for calculations of financial obligations, e.g., taxes. The Land and Property Register (LPR), which is part of the Land Administration System, serves a number of economic and legal purposes. This geo-system often contains low-quality information regarding the technical potential of modern data acquisition methods and is continuously updated. The authors propose a two-step analysis of data contained in the LPR. The first step identified the sources of discrepancies between data from the LPR and the reality in the field. The second step emphasises the importance of the factors under analysis, which include both a plot’s geometric parameters, the geo-location features (associated with the natural environment elements) and factors associated with the supplementary data acquisition methods. The results show that sufficient quality data play the main role in achieving compatibility between the data in the Land and Property Register and with reality. Studies conducted so far have dealt with data on a global scale and were based on in situ data and focused on the specific values of each plot under analysis. Full article

Landslides are one of the most devastating and commonly recurring natural hazards in the Indian Himalayas. They contribute to infrastructure damage, land loss and human casualties. Most of the landslides are primarily rainfall-induced and the relationship has been well very well-established, having been commonly defined using empirical-based models which use statistical approaches to determine the parameters of a power-law equation. One of the main drawbacks using the traditional empirical methods is that it fails to reduce the uncertainties associated with threshold calculation. The present study overcomes these limitations by identifying the precipitation condition responsible for landslide occurrence using an algorithm-based model. The methodology involves the use of an automated tool which determines cumulated event rainfall–rainfall duration thresholds at various exceedance probabilities and the associated uncertainties. The analysis has been carried out for the Kalimpong Region of the Darjeeling Himalayas using rainfall and landslide data for the period 2010–2016. The results signify that a rainfall event of 48 hours with a cumulated event rainfall of 36.7 mm can cause landslides in the study area. Such a study is the first to be conducted for the Indian Himalayas and can be considered as a first step in determining more reliable thresholds which can be used as part of an operational early-warning system. Full article

The Zagros thrust belt is a zone of deformed crustal rocks well exposed along the southwest region of Iran. To obtain a better knowledge of this mountain chain, we elaborated a 2D model reproducing the thermal structure of the “Mountain Front Fault”. This study, which is focused on the Lurestan region, is based on a model made by merging published sections and available information on the depth of the Moho. We present the isotherms and the geotherms calculated using an analytical methodology. The calculation procedure includes the temperature variation due to the re-equilibrated conductive state after thrusting, frictional heating, heat flow density data, and a series of geologically derived constraints. In order to perform the temperature calculations, the crustal structure in the Lurestan region is simplified as composed of two domains: A lower unit made by crystalline basement and an upper unit including all the lithostratigraphic units forming the sedimentary cover. The resulting model is compared with the numerical results obtained by previous studies to improve the description of the thermal structure of this geologically important area. Full article

The paper investigates on the hydro-acoustic waves propagation caused by the underwater earthquake, occurred on 6 February 2012, between the Negros and Cebu islands, in the Philippines. Hydro-acoustic waves are pressure waves that propagate at the sound celerity in water. These waves can be triggered by the sudden vertical sea-bed movement, due to underwater earthquakes. The results of three dimensional numerical simulations, which solve the wave equation in a weakly compressible sea water domain are presented. The hydro-acoustic signal is compared to an underwater acoustic signal recorded during the event by a scuba diver, who was about 12 km far from the earthquake epicenter. Full article

Interocean waters that are carried northward through South Atlantic surface boundary currents get meridionally split between two large-scale systems when meeting the South American coast at the western subtropical portion of the basin. This distribution of the zonal flow along the coast is investigated during the Last Millennium, when natural forcing was key to establish climate variability. Of particular interest are the changes between the contrasting periods of the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) and the Little Ice Age (LIA). The investigation is conducted with the simulation results from the Community Earth System Model Last Millennium Ensemble (CESM-LME). It is found that the subtropical South Atlantic circulation pattern differs substantially between these natural climatic extremes, especially at the northern boundary of the subtropical gyre, where the westward-flowing southern branch of the South Equatorial Current (sSEC) bifurcates off the South American coast, originating the equatorward-flowing North Brazil Undercurrent (NBUC) and the poleward Brazil Current (BC). It is shown that during the MCA, a weaker anti-cyclonic subtropical gyre circulation took place (inferred from decreased southern sSEC and BC transports), while the equatorward transport of the Meridional Overturning Circulation return flow was increased (intensified northern sSEC and NBUC). The opposite scenario occurs during the LIA: a more vigorous subtropical gyre circulation with decreased northward transport. Full article

The present paper deals with a field experiments on evaporite rock samples and groundwater investigations in the Quinis test site, a hamlet of the Enemonzo municipality in NE Italy, were sinkholes occurred in the past and are still occurring causing severe damage to the existing infrastructures. The area is characterised by a Carnian evaporitic bedrock made of gypsum and anhydrite mantled by alluvial and colluvial deposits. In order to evaluate the loss of weight and volume of the subcropping evaporites as responsible for sinkholes, a field-experiment was carried out. Inside seven piezometers, at different depths, evaporitic rock samples were exposed to the naturally occurring variable climatic conditions such as degree of humidity, different air flow and hydrodynamic. The rock samples were installed at the beginning of April 2017 in the dry sections of piezometric tubes, in the vadose zone and in the phreatic zone. Data related to water level fluctuations were recorded by using data-logger devices and highlight significant changes in the water table. After 13 months of data recording (May 2018), rock samples were removed, reweighted and the volume loss measured. In addition, water from piezometer-experiment, representative of the groundwater circulation, were collected at different depths. The obtained results indicate that rock sample reduction is dependent on the hydrological regime and water chemistry and not on the number of days during which the samples remained submersed. In particular, the water geochemistry highlights the possible role in gypsum/anhydrite dissolution due to NaCl water admixing in a complex scenario. In additional, the geochemical data highlight the occurrence of some potentially toxic elements (As, Fe, Mn) at concentrations of concern in some water. This approach represents a novel contribution in the study of karst hazard in evaporites adding a tile to the knowledge of the fast evolutionary processes which cause sinkhole formation. Full article

The aim of this study was to determine the contribution of snow and glacial ice to the river fluxes, and to identify the type of ice formation in the Tsambagarav massif (the northwestern part of Mongolia). The main method for this study was isotopic analysis of water samples. The isotopic separation showed that the shares of the main components in the total runoff differed for different rivers of the massif. Alongside with that, glacial meltwater prevailed in all the investigated fluxes. The share of snow and firn in the meltwater coming from the surface of the large valley glaciers in the middle of the ablation season in 2017 changed by only 10%—from 20% to 30%. Thus, further reduction of glaciation caused by global climate change could significantly affect the water balance of the study area. The isotopic composition of glacial ice proves that its alimentation primarily comes from precipitation during the transitional seasons. Superimposed ice is not the basis for nourishment of the glaciers of the Tsambagarav massif. Full article

The goals of the study were: (i) To describe the distribution of summer near-surface water temperatures in lakes of the coterminous United States and southern Canada (ii) to determine the geographic, meteorological and limnological factors related to summer water temperatures and (iii) to develop and test predictive models for summer near-surface water temperatures. We used data from the United States National Lakes Assessments of 2007 and 2012 as well as data collected from several different studies of Canadian lakes. Using multiple regressions, we quantified the general observations that summer water temperatures decreased when going from south to north, from east to west, and from lower elevations to higher elevations. Our empirical model using 8-day average air temperatures, latitude, longitude, elevations and month was able to predict water temperatures in individual lakes on individual summer days with a standard deviation of 1.7 °C for United States lakes and 2.3 °C for lakes in the southern regions of Canada. Full article

This work intends to embed the estimation of the joint roughness coefficient (JRC) in the framework of random fields. The random field method is a probabilistic approach which involves modeling of the spatial variability of the pertinent physical quantities as a fundamental part of the (assumed) underlying probabilistic structure. Although this method is one of higher complexity in regard of the presumed background knowledge, it encodes naturally subtler information about the rock surface roughness. It is noted that, the proposed random field approach considers automatically the scale of the problem (no correction factor is needed), whilst the JRC estimates appear to be more stable (compared to those derived from Z₂ or SF) in the sense that images of the same profile but of different quality give similar results for its roughness. The present work could also be useful in advanced probabilistic rock slope stability analysis based on random fields. In such a case, the required spatial correlation length θ can be obtained by the proposed θ = 145.5 σ/JRC relationship (σ = variance of the profile). The JRC can be obtained through tilt tests, push or pull tests, or matching roughness profiles, whilst σ can be obtained from inspection of the digitized profile. Full article

Normally, the average of the horizontal-to-vertical (H/V) ratios of the 5% damped response spectra of ground motions is used to classify the site of strong-motion stations. In these cases, only the three-orthogonal as-recorded acceleration components are used in the analysis, and all the vector compositions that can generate a different response for each period oscillator are excluded. In this study, the Spanish strong-motion database was used to classify the sites of accelerometric stations based on the predominant periods through the average horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratios (HVSR) of recorded ground motions. Moreover, the directionality effects using the vector composition of the horizontal components of ground motions were also considered in the estimations of H/V ratios. This consideration is a relevant novelty compared to the traditional H/V ratios methods. Only earthquakes with magnitudes above 3.5 and hypocentral distances below 200 km were selected, which resulted in 692 ground-motion records, corresponding to 86 stations, from events in the period between 1993 and 2017. After the analysis, a predominant-period site classification was assigned to each station. On the whole, the obtained mean and standard deviation values of the spectral ratios are comparable to those shown by other researchers. Therefore, the advantages of the proposed procedure, which takes the directionality effects into account, can be summarized as follows: (a) The obtained information is richer and gives enables more sophisticated and realistic analyses on the basis of percentiles and (b) it is easier to detect anomalous stations, sites, and/or accelerograms. Moreover, the method eliminates the effect of directionality as a contributor to epistemic uncertainty. Full article