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Advanced Flame Retardant Materials

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2019) | Viewed by 40344

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Dr. Fouad Laoutid

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Laboratory of Polymeric & Composite Materials, Materia Nova Research Center, University of Mons UMONS, Place du Parc 23, B-7000 Mons, Belgium
Interests: (bio)polymers; flame retardancy; polymer recycling; (nano)composites; reactive extrusion
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Dear Colleagues,

Recent disasters caused by the spread of fire in buildings and in transportations remind us of the importance of fire protection. Using flame-retardant materials presents one important element of the firefighting strategy, which aims at preventing fire development and propagation. These materials are used in different applications, such as in textiles, coatings, foams, furniture, and cables.

The development of more efficient and environmentally friendly flame-retardant additives is an active multidisciplinary approach that has attracted a great deal of interest. Works aims at the development of new, sustainable, flame-retardant additives/materials, providing high performances and low toxicity. These also concern studying their properties during ageing and recycling, as well as modeling physical and chemical processes taking place before ignition and during their combustion.

The development of sustainable flame retardants, as well as an understanding of their modes of action, presents a strong link between all these topics and covers a large spectrum, from organic chemistry, materials engineering, and toxicology to physics and mathematics.

This Special Issue aims to provide an excellent opportunity for publishing your latest advances in these research fields. Full papers, review articles and communications are all welcome.

Dr. Fouad Laoutid
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Polymers
Composites
Sustainability
Bio-based flame retardants
Combustion
Smoke toxicity
Fire testing
Ageing and recycling

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 4922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Effects of Aluminum Diethylphosphinate and Melamine on Improving the Flame Retardancy of Phenolic Resin

by Ru Zhou, Wenjuan Li, Jingjing Mu, Yanming Ding and Juncheng Jiang

Materials 2020, 13(1), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13010158 - 31 Dec 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3266

Abstract

A series of novel flame retardants (aluminum diethylphosphinate and melamine) were used to improve the fire performance of phenolic resin. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to characterize the modification results. Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to study the thermal decomposition of phenolic resin system, and the flame retardancy of phenolic resin system was tested by vertical combustion test (UL-94) and limiting oxygen index (LOI). The combustion properties of modified phenolic resin were further tested with a cone calorimeter(CCT). Finally, the structure of carbon residue layer was measured by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results show that with the introduction of 10 wt % aluminum diethylphosphinate in phenolic resin, the LOI reaches 33.1%, residual carbon content increase to 55%. The heat release rate (HRR) decreased to 245.6 kW/m², and the total heat release (THR) decreased to 58.6 MJ/m². By adding 10 wt % aluminum diethylphosphinate and 3 wt % melamine, the flame retardancy of the modified resin can pass UL-94 V-0 flame retardant grade, LOI reaches 34.6%, residual carbon content increase to 59.5%. The HRR decreases to 196.2 kW/m² at 196 s, relatively pure phenolic resin decreased by 35.5%, and THR decreased to 51 MJ/m². Compared with pure phenolic resin, the heat release rate and total heat release of modified phenolic resin decreased significantly. This suggests that aluminum diethylphosphinate and melamine play a nitrogen-phosphorus synergistic effect in the phenolic resin, which improves the thermal stability and flame retardancy of the phenolic resin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flame Retardant Materials)

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16 pages, 10256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of a Novel Flame Retardant Formulation for Cotton Fabric

by Hung Kim Nguyen, Wataru Sakai and Congtranh Nguyen

Materials 2020, 13(1), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13010054 - 20 Dec 2019

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3253

Abstract

A novel halogen-free flame-retardant formulation was prepared and coated onto cotton fabrics. The structure of phosphorus compounds in the system was characterized by attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-NMR). Results from the ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) analyses presented that the flame retardant was coated successfully onto a cotton surface. We investigated the thermal stability and fire-retardant behaviors of cotton fabrics using thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and the vertical flame test. We also discuss the mechanism of flame retardance of coated cotton fabrics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flame Retardant Materials)

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13 pages, 2622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Inherently Flame—Retardant Phosphorylated PLA by Combination of Ring-Opening Polymerization and Reactive Extrusion

by Rosica Mincheva, Hazar Guemiza, Chaimaa Hidan, Sébastien Moins, Olivier Coulembier, Philippe Dubois and Fouad Laoutid

Materials 2020, 13(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13010013 - 18 Dec 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3765

Abstract

In this study, a highly efficient flame-retardant bioplastic poly(lactide) was developed by covalently incorporating flame-retardant DOPO, that is, 9,10-dihydro-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide. To that end, a three-step strategy that combines the catalyzed ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of L,L-lactide (L,L-LA) in bulk from a pre-synthesized DOPO-diamine initiator, followed by bulk chain-coupling reaction by reactive extrusion of the so-obtained phosphorylated polylactide (PLA) oligomers (DOPO-PLA) with hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI), is described. The flame retardancy of the phosphorylated PLA (DOPO-PLA-PU) was investigated by mass loss cone calorimetry and UL-94 tests. As compared with a commercially available PLA matrix, phosphorylated PLA shows superior flame-retardant properties, that is, (i) significant reduction of both the peak of heat release rate (pHRR) and total heat release (THR) by 35% and 36%, respectively, and (ii) V0 classification at UL-94 test. Comparisons between simple physical DOPO-diamine/PLA blends and a DOPO-PLA-PU material were also performed. The results evidenced the superior flame-retardant behavior of phosphorylated PLA obtained by a reactive pathway. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flame Retardant Materials)

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17 pages, 6377 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Exploring the Contribution of Two Phosphorus-Based Groups to Polymer Flammability via Pyrolysis–Combustion Flow Calorimetry

by Rodolphe Sonnier, Belkacem Otazaghine, Christelle Vagner, Frédéric Bier, Jean-Luc Six, Alain Durand and Henri Vahabi

Materials 2019, 12(18), 2961; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12182961 - 12 Sep 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2320

Abstract

From a set of around 100 phosphorus-containing polymers tested in pyrolysis–combustion flow calorimetry, the contributions to flammability of two phosphorus-containing pendant groups (called 9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide (DOPO) and PO₃) were calculated using an advanced method previously proposed and validated. The flammability properties include total heat release (THR) and heat release capacity (HRC) measured in standard conditions, i.e., anaerobic pyrolysis and complete combustion. The calculated contributions are in good agreement with the main modes of action of both phosphorus groups, i.e., flame inhibition for DOPO and char promotion for PO₃. Moreover, the results provide first conclusions about the cooperative interaction between phosphorus and nitrogen, as well as the influence of the architecture of tested co-polymers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flame Retardant Materials)

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16 pages, 3179 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Improving Mechanical Properties and Reaction to Fire of EVA/LLDPE Blends for Cable Applications with Melamine Triazine and Bentonite Clay

by Guadalupe Sanchez-Olivares, Antonio Sanchez-Solis, Octavio Manero, Ricardo Pérez-Chávez, Mario Jaramillo, Jenny Alongi and Federico Carosio

Materials 2019, 12(15), 2393; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12152393 - 26 Jul 2019

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3033

Abstract

The high flame-retardant loading required for ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer blends with polyethylene (EVA-PE) employed for insulation and sheathing of electric cables represents a significant limitation in processability and final mechanical properties. In this work, melamine triazine (TRZ) and modified bentonite clay have been investigated in combination with aluminum trihydroxide (ATH) for the production of EVA-PE composites with excellent fire safety and improved mechanical properties. Optimized formulations with only 120 parts per hundred resin (phr) of ATH can achieve self-extinguishing behavior according to the UL94 classification (V0 rating), as well as reduced combustion kinetics and smoke production. Mechanical property evaluation shows reduced stiffness and improved elongation at break with respect to commonly employed EVA-PE/ATH composites. The reduction in filler content also provides improved processability and cost reductions. The results presented here allow for a viable and halogen-free strategy for the preparation of high performing EVA-PE composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flame Retardant Materials)

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14 pages, 4128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Stability and Flammability Behavior of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) Based Composites

by Henri Vahabi, Laurent Michely, Ghane Moradkhani, Vahideh Akbari, Marianne Cochez, Christelle Vagner, Estelle Renard, Mohammad Reza Saeb and Valérie Langlois

Materials 2019, 12(14), 2239; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12142239 - 11 Jul 2019

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 3761

Abstract

A series of samples based on poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) containing five different additives were prepared and their thermal stability and flammability were discussed. The samples first underwent flammability screening by using Pyrolysis Combustion Flow Calorimeter (PCFC) analyses. Then, four samples were selected for further investigations. PHB composites containing sepiolite (Sep.) inorganic nanofiller, and also organic ammonium polyphosphate (APP) were examined for flammability and thermal behavior using PCFC, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), flame test, and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analyses. Moreover, burning behavior of samples were captured on a digital camera to give a deeper sense of their flammability character for comparison. The results revealed a significant improvement of flammability and thermal stability of composites, particularly in the presence of sepiolite with respect to the value obtained for unfilled PHB. Regarding TGA results, the char residue yield was increased to ca. 20.0 wt.% in the presence of sepiolite, while 0.0 wt.% was observed for PHB. PCFC measurements uncovered higher performance of PHB-Sep. sample as signaled by 40% reduction in the peak of heat release rate with respect to PHB. According to observations, PHB-Sep. sample showed non-dripping behavior with high capacity of charring in the presence of Sep. in a vertical flame test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flame Retardant Materials)

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19 pages, 8895 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lignin Nanoparticles as A Promising Way for Enhancing Lignin Flame Retardant Effect in Polylactide

by Benjamin Chollet, José-Marie Lopez-Cuesta, Fouad Laoutid and Laurent Ferry

Materials 2019, 12(13), 2132; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12132132 - 02 Jul 2019

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 4633

Abstract

The present study investigates the effect of using lignin at nanoscale as new flame-retardant additive for polylactide (PLA). Lignin nanoparticles (LNP) were prepared from Kraft lignin microparticles (LMP) through a dissolution-precipitation process. Both micro and nano lignins were functionalized using diethyl chlorophosphate (LMP-diEtP and LNP-diEtP, respectively) and diethyl (2-(triethoxysilyl)ethyl) phosphonate (LMP-SiP and LNP-SiP, respectively) to enhance their flame-retardant effect in PLA. From the use of inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometry, it can be considered that a large amount of phosphorus has been grafted onto the nanoparticles. It has been previously shown that blending lignin with PLA induces degradation of the polymer matrix. However, phosphorylated lignin nanoparticles seem to limit PLA degradation during melt processing and the nanocomposites were shown to be relatively thermally stable. Cone calorimeter tests revealed that the incorporation of untreated lignin, whatever its particle size, induced an increase in pHRR. Using phosphorylated lignin nanoparticles, especially those treated with diethyl (2-(triethoxysilyl)ethyl) phosphonate allows this negative effect to be overcome. Moreover, the pHRR is significantly reduced, even when only 5 wt% LNP-SiP is used. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flame Retardant Materials)

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16 pages, 7039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on the Flame Retardant Properties and Fracture Toughness of DOPO and Nano-SiO₂ Modified Epoxy Novolac Resin and Evaluation of Its Combinational Effects

by Markus Häublein, Karin Peter, Gökhan Bakis, Roi Mäkimieni, Volker Altstädt and Martin Möller

Materials 2019, 12(9), 1528; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12091528 - 10 May 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4012

Abstract

In this study, the flame-retardant, thermal and mechanical properties of 9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide (DOPO) and nano-SiO₂ modified epoxy novolac resin is evaluated, and the combinational effects of both additives are verified. As a hardener, an isophorone diamine (IPDA) and polyetheramine blend is stoichiometrically added to obtain a low viscous epoxy resin system, suitable for resin injection and infusion techniques. The glass transition temperature (Tg) and the silica dispersion quality is affected by the DOPO modification and the nano silica particles. The flame-retardant (FR) and mechanical properties of the additives are investigated separately. The fracture toughness could be increased with the incorporation of both FR additives; however, the effect is deteriorated for higher DOPO amount which is referred to silica particle agglomeration and consequently reduced shear yielding mechanism. Flame-retardant properties, especially the peak heat release rate (pHRR) and the total heat release (THR) could be decreased from 1373.0 kW/m² of neat novolac to 646.6 kW/m² measured by resins with varying phosphorous and silica content. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) measurements show the formation of a high temperature stable char layer above 800 °C which is attributed to both additives. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images are taken to get deeper information of the flame-retardant mechanism, showing a dense and stable char layer for a certain DOPO silica mixture which restrains the combustible gases from the burning zone in the cone calorimeter test and influences the fire behavior of the epoxy resin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flame Retardant Materials)

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13 pages, 1784 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Ammonium Polyphosphate/Lignin Ratio on Thermal and Fire Behavior of Biobased Thermoplastic: The Case of Polyamide 11

by Aurélie Cayla, François Rault, Stéphane Giraud, Fabien Salaün, Rodolphe Sonnier and Loïc Dumazert

Materials 2019, 12(7), 1146; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12071146 - 08 Apr 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3331

Abstract

Flame retardancy of polymers is a recurring obligation for many applications. The development trend of biobased materials is no exception to this rule, and solutions of flame retardants from agro-resources give an advantage. Lignin is produced as a waste by-product from some industries, and can be used in the intumescent formation development as a source of carbon combined with an acid source. In this study, the flame retardancy of polyamide 11 (PA) is carried out by extrusion with a kraft lignin (KL) and ammonium polyphosphate (AP). The study of the optimal ratio between the KL and the AP makes it possible to optimize the fire properties as well as to reduce the cost and facilitates the implementation of the blend by a melting process. The properties of thermal decomposition and the fire reaction have been studied by thermogravimetric analyzes, pyrolysis combustion flow calorimetry (PCFC) and vertical flame spread tests (UL94). KL permits a charring effect delaying thermal degradation and decreases by 66% the peak of heat release rate in comparison with raw PA. The fire reaction of the ternary blends is improved even if KL-AP association does not have a synergy effect. The 25/75 and 33/67 KL/AP ratios in PA give an intumescence behavior under flame exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flame Retardant Materials)

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22 pages, 7549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Natural Keratin and Coconut Fibres from Industrial Wastes in Flame Retarded Thermoplastic Starch Biocomposites

by Sebastian Rabe, Guadalupe Sanchez-Olivares, Ricardo Pérez-Chávez and Bernhard Schartel

Materials 2019, 12(3), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12030344 - 22 Jan 2019

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 3664

Abstract

Natural keratin fibres derived from Mexican tannery waste and coconut fibres from coconut processing waste were used as fillers in commercially available, biodegradable thermoplastic starch-polyester blend to obtain sustainable biocomposites. The morphology, rheological and mechanical properties as well as pyrolysis, flammability and forced flaming combustion behaviour of those biocomposites were investigated. In order to open up new application areas for these kinds of biocomposites, ammonium polyphosphate (APP) was added as a flame retardant. Extensive flammability and cone calorimeter studies revealed a good flame retardance effect with natural fibres alone and improved effectiveness with the addition of APP. In fact, it was shown that replacing 20 of 30 wt. % of APP with keratin fibres achieved the same effectiveness. In the case of coconut fibres, a synergistic effect led to an even lower heat release rate and total heat evolved due to reinforced char residue. This was confirmed via scanning electron microscopy of the char structure. All in all, these results constitute a good approach towards sustainable and biodegradable fibre reinforced biocomposites with improved flame retardant properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flame Retardant Materials)

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12 pages, 2642 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparing the Degradable, Flame-Retardant and Low Dielectric Constant Nanocomposites for Flexible and Miniaturized Electronics with Poly(lactic acid), Nano ZIF-8@GO and Resorcinol Di(phenyl phosphate)

by Mi Zhang, Yu Gao, Yixing Zhan, Xiaoqing Ding, Ming Wang and Xinlong Wang

Materials 2018, 11(9), 1756; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091756 - 18 Sep 2018

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3783

Abstract

Degradable, flame retardant, and flexible nanocomposite films with low dielectric constant were prepared with poly (lactic acid) (PLA), nano ZIF-8@GO, and degradable flame-retardant resorcinol di(phenyl phosphate) (RDP). The SEM results of the fractured surfaces indicated that ZIF-8@GO and RDP were dispersed uniformly in the PLA matrix. The prepared films had good mechanical properties and the tensile strength of the film with 1.5 wt% of ZIF-8@GO was increased to 48.2 MPa, compared with 38.5 MPa of pure PLA. Meanwhile, the nanocomposite films were flexible due to the toughing effect of RDP. Moreover, above 27.0% of limited oxygen index (LOI) and a VTM-0 rating were achieved for the nanocomposite films. The effects of nano ZIF-8@GO hybrids and RDP on the dielectric properties were investigated, and the results showed that ZIF-8@GO and RDP were beneficial in reducing the dielectric constant and dielectric loss of the nanocomposites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flame Retardant Materials)

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