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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Materials Physics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2022) | Viewed by 23891

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Dr. Katia Vutova

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Guest Editor

Institute of Electronics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 1784 Sofia, Bulgaria
Interests: electron beam technologies; modeling and application of mathematics in physics; interaction of electrons with materials; technology process optimization
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Special Issue on Electron Beam Processing of Materials brings together scientists working at universities, research institutes, laboratories, and various industries to discuss state-of-the-art research on material processing using electron beam methods for different applications. The methods and devices based on the use of electron beams for material processing are high-tech, environmentally friendly, resource-preserving technologies and devices that are key for developing high-quality competitive products. They are the foundation of technical progress in micro- and nano-electronics, in the production of novel materials, in creating new designs for instruments and precision machinery, and in developing technologies and systems based on electron beams.

This Special Issue is a timely approach to survey recent progress in the development and optimization of electron beam applications in modern, ecological, conventional, and nonconventional methods for material processing. The articles presented in this Special Issue will cover various topics, ranging from beam physics and generation, metal melting and welding, additive manufacturing, electron beam processing of polymers and composites, electron accelerators applications for material modification, surface treatment methods, electron beam evaporation and deposition of functional coatings, electron beam lithography, process modeling, etc. Therefore, this Special Issue welcomes contributions from all researchers working on materials processing by electron beams, as well as on their characterization, properties, and applications.

The Special Issue will cover, but will not be limited to, the following topics:

Physics of intense electron beams;
Electron beam melting and refining of metals and alloys;
Additive manufacturing with electron beams;
Electron beam welding;
High-rate deposition by electron beam evaporation for metallurgical coatings;
Electron beam surface modification;
Thermal processing and thin films deposited using electron beams;
Electron beam lithography;
Electron beam curing of polymers and composites;
Electron beam processes for the production of novel materials;
Modeling of electron beam sources, processes, and systems;
Related and new applications for electron beam processing of materials.

It is my pleasure to invite you to submit a manuscript for this Special Issue. Full papers, communications, and reviews are welcome.

Prof. Dr. Katia Vutova
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

electron beam
melting and refining
additive manufacturing
welding
evaporation
coatings
surface modification
thin films
novel materials
lithography
modeling
new applications

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 5681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recycling of Technogenic CoCrMo Alloy by Electron Beam Melting

by Katia Vutova, Vladislava Stefanova, Vania Vassileva and Stela Atanasova-Vladimirova

Materials 2022, 15(12), 4168; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124168 - 12 Jun 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1447

Abstract

In the current work, the possibility of the recycling of technogenic CoCrMo material by electron beam melting is investigated. The influence of thermodynamic and kinetic parameters (temperature and melting time) on the behavior of the main components of the alloy (Co, Cr, and Mo) and other elements (Fe, Mn, Si, W, and Nb) present in it, and on the microstructure of the ingots obtained after e-beam processing is studied. The vapor pressure of the alloy is determined taking into account the activities of the main alloy components (Co, Cr, and Mo). The relative volatility of the metal elements present in the alloy was also evaluated. An assessment of the influence of the temperature and the retention time on the degree of elements removal from CoCrMo technogenic material was made. The results obtained show that the highest degree of refining is achieved at 1860 K and a residence time of 20 min. The conducted EDS analysis of the more characteristic phases observed on the SEM images of the samples shows distinct micro-segregation in the matrix composition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electron Beam Processing of Materials)

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11 pages, 776 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calculation of the Absorbed Electron Energy 3D Distribution by the Monte Carlo Method, Presentation of the Proximity Function by Three Parameters α, β, η and Comparison with the Experiment

by Alexander A. Svintsov, Maxim A. Knyazev and Sergey I. Zaitsev

Materials 2022, 15(11), 3888; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15113888 - 30 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1316

Abstract

The paper presents a program for simulating electron scattering in layered materials ProxyFn. Calculations show that the absorbed energy density is three-dimensional, while the contribution of the forward-scattered electrons is better described by a power function rather than the commonly used Gaussian. It is shown that for the practical correction of the proximity effect, it is possible, nevertheless, to use the classical two-dimensional proximity function containing three parameters: α, β, η. A method for determining the parameters α, β, η from three-dimensional calculations based on MC simulation and development consideration is proposed. A good agreement of the obtained parameters and experimental data for various substrates and electron energies is shown. Thus, a method for calculating the parameters of the classical proximity function for arbitrary layered substrates based on the Monte Carlo simulation has been developed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electron Beam Processing of Materials)

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14 pages, 54679 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Beam Figure on Porosity of Electron Beam Welded Thin-Walled Aluminum Plates

by Matthias Moschinger, Florian Mittermayr and Norbert Enzinger

Materials 2022, 15(10), 3519; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103519 - 13 May 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1812

Abstract

Welded aluminum components in the aerospace industry are subject to more stringent safety regulations than in other industries. Electron beam welding as a highly precise process fulfills this requirement. The welding of aluminum poses a challenge due to its high tendency to pore formation. To gain a better understanding of pore formation during the process, 1.5 mm thick aluminum AW6082 plates were welded using specially devised beam figures in different configurations. The obtained welds were examined with radiographic testing to evaluate the size, distribution, and the number of pores. Cross-sections of the welds were investigated with light microscopy and an electron probe microanalyzer to decipher the potential mechanisms that led to porosity. The examined welds showed that the porosity is influenced in various ways by the used figures, but it cannot be completely avoided. Chemical and microstructural analyzes have revealed that the main mechanism for pore formation was the evaporation of the alloying elements Mg and Zn. This study demonstrates that the number of pores can be reduced and their size can be minimized using a proper beam figure and energy distribution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electron Beam Processing of Materials)

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14 pages, 2747 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cathodoluminescent Analysis of Sapphire Surface Etching Processes in a Medium-Energy Electron Beam

by Arsen Muslimov and Vladimir Kanevsky

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1332; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041332 - 11 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1502

Abstract

Sapphire crystals are widely used in optics and optoelectronics. In this regard, it is important to study the stability of crystals under external influence and the possibility of modifying their surfaces by external influence. This work presents the results of studying the processes of the action of an electron beam with an average energy of 70 keV or less under vacuum conditions on the surfaces of sapphire substrates of various orientations. The effect of etching a sapphire surface by an electron beam in vacuum at room temperature was discovered. The highest etching rate was observed for A-plane sapphire (the average pit etching rate was 10⁻⁶ µm³/s). It was shown that the rate of etching of a sapphire surface increased many times over when gold is deposited. An in situ method for studying the process of etching a sapphire surface using cathodoluminescence analysis was considered. Possible mechanisms of sapphire etching by a beam of bombarding electrons were considered. The results obtained could be important in solving the problem of the stability of sapphire windows used in various conditions, including outer space. In addition, the proposed method of metal-stimulated etching of a sapphire surface can be widely used in patterned sapphire substrate (PSS) technology and further forming low-dislocation light-emitting structures on them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electron Beam Processing of Materials)

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12 pages, 3897 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Behaviour of Impurities during Electron Beam Melting of Copper Technogenic Material

by Katia Vutova, Vladislava Stefanova, Vania Vassileva and Milen Kadiyski

Materials 2022, 15(3), 936; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030936 - 26 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1548

Abstract

The current study presents the electron beam melting (EBM) efficiency of copper technogenic material with high impurity content (Se, Te, Pb, Bi, Sn, As, Sb, Zn, Ni, Ag, etc.) by means of thermodynamic analysis and experimental tests. On the basis of the calculated values of Gibbs free energy and the physical state of the impurity (liquid and gaseous), a thermodynamic assessment of the possible chemical interactions occurring in the Cu-Cu₂O-Me_x system in vacuum in the temperature range 1460–1800 K was made. The impact of the kinetic parameters (temperature and refining time) on the behaviour and the degree of removal of impurities was evaluated. Chemical and metallographic analysis of the obtained ingots is also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electron Beam Processing of Materials)

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10 pages, 1273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature Profile in Starch during Irradiation. Indirect Effects in Starch by Radiation-Induced Heating

by Mirela Braşoveanu and Monica R. Nemţanu

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3061; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113061 - 3 Jun 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2699

Abstract

Present research deals with exposure of granular starch to the accelerated electron of 5.5 MeV energy in order to examine: (i) the temperature evolution in starch within an irradiation process and (ii) the indirect effects generated in starch by radiation-induced heating. The temperature evolution in potato and corn starches within the irradiation process was investigated by placing two different sensors inside each starch batch and recording the temperature simultaneously. Each starch batch was sampled into distinct location sectors of different absorbed radiation levels. The output effects in each sample were analyzed through physicochemical properties such as moisture content, acidity and color attributes. The outcomes showed that a starch temperature profile had different major stages: (i) heating during irradiation, (ii) post-irradiation heating, up to the maximum temperature is reached, and (iii) cooling to the room temperature. A material constant with signification of a relaxation time was identified by modeling the temperature evolution. Changes of the investigated properties were induced both by irradiation and radiation-induced heating, depending on the starch type and the batch sectors. Changes in the irradiated batch sectors were explained by irradiation and radiation-induced heating whereas changes in the sector of non-irradiated starch were attributed only to the heating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electron Beam Processing of Materials)

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14 pages, 4219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nano-Mechanical Properties and Creep Behavior of Ti6Al4V Fabricated by Powder Bed Fusion Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing

by Hanlin Peng, Weiping Fang, Chunlin Dong, Yaoyong Yi, Xing Wei, Bingbing Luo and Siming Huang

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3004; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113004 - 1 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2268

Abstract

Effects of scanning strategy during powder bed fusion electron beam additive manufacturing (PBF-EB AM) on microstructure, nano-mechanical properties, and creep behavior of Ti6Al4V alloys were compared. Results show that PBF-EB AM Ti6Al4V alloy with linear scanning without rotation strategy was composed of 96.9% α-Ti and 2.7% β-Ti, and has a nanoindentation range of 4.11–6.31 GPa with the strain rate ranging from 0.001 to 1 s⁻¹, and possesses a strain-rate sensitivity exponent of 0.053 ± 0.014. While PBF-EB AM Ti6Al4V alloy with linear and 90° rotate scanning strategy was composed of 98.1% α-Ti and 1.9% β-Ti and has a nanoindentation range of 3.98–5.52 GPa with the strain rate ranging from 0.001 to 1 s⁻¹, and possesses a strain-rate sensitivity exponent of 0.047 ± 0.009. The nanohardness increased with increasing strain rate, and creep displacement increased with the increasing maximum holding loads. The creep behavior was mainly dominated by dislocation motion during deformation induced by the indenter. The PBF-EB AM Ti6Al4V alloy with only the linear scanning strategy has a higher nanohardness and better creep resistance properties than the alloy with linear scanning and 90° rotation strategy. These results could contribute to understanding the creep behavior of Ti6Al4V alloy and are significant for PBF-EB AM of Ti6Al4V and other alloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electron Beam Processing of Materials)

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14 pages, 5172 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Behavior of Ti-64 Primary Material in Electron Beam Melting Process

by Jean-Pierre Bellot, Julien Jourdan, Jean-Sébastien Kroll-Rabotin, Thibault Quatravaux and Alain Jardy

Materials 2021, 14(11), 2853; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112853 - 26 May 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1955

Abstract

The Electron Beam Melting (EBM) process has emerged as either an alternative or a complement to vacuum arc remelting of titanium alloys, since it is capable of enhancing the removal of exogenous inclusions by dissolution or sedimentation. The melting of the primary material is a first step of this continuous process, which has not been studied so far and is investigated experimentally and numerically in the present study. Experiments have been set up in a 100 kW laboratory furnace with the aim of analyzing the effect of melting rate on surface temperature of Ti-64 bars. It was found that melting rate is nearly proportional to the EB power while the overheating temperature remains roughly independent of the melting rate and equal to about 100 °C. The emissivity of molten Ti-64 was found to be 0.22 at an average temperature of about 1760 °C at the tip of the bar. In parallel, a mathematical model of the thermal behavior of the material during melting has been developed. The simulations revealed valuable results about the melting rate, global heat balance and thermal gradient throughout the bar, which agreed with the experimental values to a good extent. The modeling confirms that the overheating temperature of the tip of the material is nearly independent of the melting rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electron Beam Processing of Materials)

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7 pages, 532 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changing in Larch Sapwood Extractives Due to Distinct Ionizing Radiation Sources

by Thomas Schnabel, Marius Cătălin Barbu, Eugenia Mariana Tudor and Alexander Petutschnigg

Materials 2021, 14(7), 1613; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14071613 - 26 Mar 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1455

Abstract

Wood extractives have an influence on different material properties. This study deals with the changes in wood extractives of larch sapwood due to two different low doses of energy irradiations. Electron beam irradiation (EBI) and γ-ray irradiation treatments were done by using two industrial processes. After the different modifications the extractions were performed with an accelerated solvent extractor (ASE) using hexane and acetone/water. The qualitative and quantitative chemical differences of irradiated larch sapwood samples were analysed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) vibrational spectroscopy methods. The yields of the quantitative extractions decreased due to the two different irradiation processes. While the compounds extracted with nonpolar solvent from wood were reduced, the number of compounds with polar functionalities increased based on the oxidation process. Quantitatively, resin acids and polyphenols were highly affected when exposed to the two irradiation sources, leading to significant changes (up, down) in their relative amount. Furthermore, two new substances were found in the extracts of larch sapwood samples after EBI or γ-ray treatments. New insight into the different effects of larch sapwood and wood extractives by EBI and γ-ray was gained in this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electron Beam Processing of Materials)

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24 pages, 8438 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wire-Based Additive Manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V Using Electron Beam Technique

by Florian Pixner, Fernando Warchomicka, Patrick Peter, Axel Steuwer, Magnus Hörnqvist Colliander, Robert Pederson and Norbert Enzinger

Materials 2020, 13(15), 3310; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13153310 - 24 Jul 2020

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 3972

Abstract

Electron beam freeform fabrication is a wire feed direct energy deposition additive manufacturing process, where the vacuum condition ensures excellent shielding against the atmosphere and enables processing of highly reactive materials. In this work, this technique is applied for the α + β-titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V to determine suitable process parameter for robust building. The correlation between dimensions and the dilution of single beads based on selected process parameters, leads to an overlapping distance in the range of 70–75% of the bead width, resulting in a multi-bead layer with a uniform height and with a linear build-up rate. Moreover, the stacking of layers with different numbers of tracks using an alternating symmetric welding sequence allows the manufacturing of simple structures like walls and blocks. Microscopy investigations reveal that the primary structure consists of epitaxial grown columnar prior β-grains, with some randomly scattered macro and micropores. The developed microstructure consists of a mixture of martensitic and finer α-lamellar structure with a moderate and uniform hardness of 334 HV, an ultimate tensile strength of 953 MPa and rather low fracture elongation of 4.5%. A subsequent stress relief heat treatment leads to a uniform hardness distribution and an extended fracture elongation of 9.5%, with a decrease of the ultimate strength to 881 MPa due to the fine α-lamellar structure produced during the heat treatment. Residual stresses measured by energy dispersive X-ray diffraction shows after deposition 200–450 MPa in tension in the longitudinal direction, while the stresses reach almost zero when the stress relief treatment is carried out. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electron Beam Processing of Materials)

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16 pages, 4396 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Dynamic Beam Positioning for Creating Specified Structures and Properties of Welded Joints in Electron-Beam Welding

by Tatyana Olshanskaya, Vladimir Belenkiy, Elena Fedoseeva, Elena Koleva and Dmitriy Trushnikov

Materials 2020, 13(10), 2233; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13102233 - 13 May 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1928

Abstract

The application of electron beam sweep makes it possible to carry out multifocal and multi-beam welding, as well as combine the welding process with local heating or subsequent heat treatment, which is important when preparing products from thermally-hardened materials. This paper presents a method of electron beam welding (EBW) with dynamic beam positioning and its experimental-calculation results regarding the formation of structures and properties of heat-resistant steel welded joints (grade of steel 20Cr3MoWV). The application of electron beam oscillations in welding makes it possible to change the shape and dimensions of welding pool. It also affects the crystallization and formation of a primary structure. It has been established that EBW with dynamic beam positioning increases the weld metal residence time and the thermal effect zone above the critical A₃ point, increases cooling time and considerably reduces instantaneous cooling rates as compared to welding without beam sweep. Also, the difference between cooling rates in the depth of a welded joint considerably reduces the degree of structural non-uniformity. A bainitic–martensitic structure is formed in the weld metal and the thermal effect zone throughout the whole depth of fusion. As a result of this structure, the level of mechanical properties of a welded joint produced from EBW with dynamic electron beam positioning approaches that of parent metal to a greater extent than in the case of welding by a static beam. As a consequence, welding of heat-resistant steels reduces the degree of non-uniformity of mechanical properties in the depth of welded joints, as well as decreases the level of hardening of a welded joint in relation to parent metal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electron Beam Processing of Materials)

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