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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Manufacturing Processes and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 December 2022) | Viewed by 19243

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Dr. Radosław Wichniarek

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Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, Piotrowo 3 STR, 61-138 Poznan, Poland
Interests: additive manufacturing; 3D printing; biomedical engineering; rapid prototyping; rapid manufacturing; mass customization; fused filament fabrication; virtual and augmented reality
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Dear Colleagues,

Additive manufacturing, popularly known as 3D printing, has been steadily growing in popularity over the years. This is evident not only in the number of publications on this topic but above all in the number of companies that are introducing these technologies directly into their production workshops. The recent pandemic in particular has shown how flexible additive manufacturing techniques are and how quickly industrial engineers and university researchers can respond to emerging needs. However, there are still many limitations, especially in terms of materials, which mean that the advantages of additive manufacturing cannot be fully exploited in some industries, especially those related to medicine.

The increase in the general awareness of the possibility of additive manufacturing has created opportunities for close cooperation between engineers, scientists, and medical workers. Research into improving the properties of materials already in use, as well as introducing completely new materials into additive technologies in particular, is a pillar of further development and a response to the current needs of the economy. This Special Issue is the right place to present current needs and opportunities for future improvements or new materials for additive manufacturing.

Dr. Radosław Wichniarek
Guest Editor

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Keywords

additive manufacturing
3D printing
material properties
material testing
metal powders
photopolymer resins
thermoplastics powders
thermoplastics filaments
medical materials

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

14 pages, 10086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Postprocessing on the Fatigue Properties of Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-1Cr-1Fe Produced Using Electron Beam Melting

by Michał Karoluk, Karol Kobiela, Marcin Madeja, Robert Dziedzic, Grzegorz Ziółkowski and Tomasz Kurzynowski

Materials 2023, 16(3), 1201; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16031201 - 31 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1148

Abstract

Despite the significant potential advantages of processing Ti-5Al-5Mo-5V-1Cr-1Fe alloy (Ti-55511) using Electron Beam Melting (PBF-EB/M), when compared to conventional manufacturing technologies, the resulting internal defects are an important characteristic of such additive technologies and can highly decrease mechanical properties. One of the most dangerous defects formed during metal additive manufacturing processes are material discontinuities such as a lack of fusion. Defects of this type, due to their “flat” nature, are difficult to characterize. For cycle-loaded specimens, where the loading force acts perpendicular to the lack-of-fusion plane, defects of this type can significantly reduce fatigue properties. This paper presents the results of research aimed at improving the fatigue properties of Ti55511 alloy by reducing the influence of the lack-of-fusion defect on fatigue damage. The static and fatigue properties of specimens in the as-built state, as well as after hot isostatic pressing (HIP) treatment, were analyzed. The effect of HIP on both the reduction of pores and the degree of sphericity when using the X-ray computed tomography (XCT) system was presented. The change in the microstructure after HIP was analyzed in terms of the change in the size of individual phases, as well as the change in the phase ratio. This paper also contains a fractographic analysis of the samples after tensile and fatigue tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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22 pages, 16077 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Assessment of the Mechanical Properties of Selected PLA Filaments Used in the UAV Project

by Marcin Graba and Andrzej Grycz

Materials 2023, 16(3), 1194; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16031194 - 30 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1260

Abstract

The paper presents the evaluation of selected mechanical properties of PLA filaments used in the production of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). The manuscript covers a short description of the principles of pattern design and presents a shortened division of incremental manufacturing technologies. The authors present and argue the choice of material that can be used in the UAV drone design. This material has been subjected to experimental tests in order to assess selected mechanical properties that can be successfully adapted to CAD/CAM/CAE systems in order to conduct engineering analyses. The manuscript presents a discussion on the influence of the method of specimen production on selected mechanical properties, as well as the issue of errors made when measuring selected mechanical properties. In addition to the assessment of the mechanical properties of the selected filament, the manuscript indicates how to adapt the determined material constants to the FEM calculation model and presents the effectiveness of topological optimization in engineering design, which allows to reduce the weight of the drone frame by about at least 20% compared with the value originally assumed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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15 pages, 10603 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oxidation Kinetics of Ti-6Al-4V Alloys by Conventional and Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing

by Francisco Estupinán-López, Carlos Orquiz-Muela, Citlalli Gaona-Tiburcio, Jose Cabral-Miramontes, Raul German Bautista-Margulis, Demetrio Nieves-Mendoza, Erick Maldonado-Bandala, Facundo Almeraya-Calderón and Amit Joe Lopes

Materials 2023, 16(3), 1187; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16031187 - 30 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2123

Abstract

New manufacturing processes for metal parts such as additive manufacturing (AM) provide a technological development for the aeronautical and aerospace industries, since these AM processes are a means to reduce the weight of the parts, which generate cost savings. AM techniques such as Laser Powder Bed Fusions (LPBF) and Electron Beam Fusion (EBM), provided an improvement in mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and thermal stability at temperatures below 400 °C, in comparison to conventional methods. This research aimed to study the oxidation kinetics of Ti-6Al-4V alloys by conventional and Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing. The thermogravimetric analysis was performed at temperatures of 600 °C, 800 °C, and 900 °C, having a heating rate of 25 °C/min and oxidation time of 24 h. The microstructural analysis was carried out by thermogravimetric analysis. Thickness and morphology of oxide layers were analyzed by field emission scanning electron microscope, phase identification (before and after the oxidation process) was realized by X-ray diffraction at room temperature and hardness measurements were made in cross section. Results indicated that the oxidation kinetics of Ti-6Al-4V alloys fabricated by EBM was similar to conventional processing and obeyed a parabolic or quasi-parabolic kinetics. The samples oxidized at 600 °C for 24 h presented the lowest hardness values (from 350 to 470 HV). At oxidation temperatures of 800 and 900 °C, however, highest hardness values (from 870 close to the alpha-case interface up to 300 HV in base metal) were found on the surface and gradually decreased towards the center of the base alloy. This may be explained by different microstructures presented in the manufacturing processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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Graphical abstract

14 pages, 3161 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Natural Moisture of ABS Filament and Its Influence on the Quality of FFF Products

by Adam Hamrol, Błażej Góralski, Radosław Wichniarek and Wiesław Kuczko

Materials 2023, 16(3), 938; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16030938 - 19 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1589

Abstract

The article presents the results of research on the influence of the natural moisture of a filament made of acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene terpolymer (ABS) on the mechanical properties and quality of products fabricated with fused filament fabrication (FFF). The concept of the natural moisture of the filament was defined, and the range of its variability was identified in reference to the range of the natural ambient humidity. It is shown that a change in the ambient humidity by 10% resulted in a change in filament moisture by about 0.05%. The results of the research on the moisture variability of an ABS filament stored in a package, an airtight container, or a container with a moisture absorber are also discussed. The last part of the article presents the results of the research on the impact of the moisture of the filament in its natural range of variability on select mechanical properties of filaments and products made using FFT. It is shown that this impact was significant and had a value of 1 MPa on 0.1% filament moisture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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11 pages, 5070 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Resistance to High-Speed Impact Loads of a Heterogeneous Materials Reinforced with Silicon Carbide Fibers and Powder

by Alexander Malikov and Alexander Golyshev

Materials 2023, 16(2), 783; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020783 - 13 Jan 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1455

Abstract

Pioneering studies on the additive manufacturing of a cermet heterogeneous material using SiC ceramic fiber were carried out. Unique studies of the damage staging (cratering) and the transition to the destruction of the formed material during high-speed impact created with the help of an electrodynamic mass accelerator have been carried out. It has been shown that the use of ceramic fiber in a metal matrix reduces the impact crater depth by 22% compared to material with ceramic particles. For the first time, the phase composition of the resulting composite was studied using synchrotron radiation. It was shown that, as a result of laser exposure, silicon carbide SiC is dissolved in the titanium matrix with the formation of secondary compounds of the TiC and Ti5Si3C types. It has been established that the use of SiC ceramic fibers leads to their better dissolution, in contrast to the use of SiC ceramic particles, with the formation of secondary phase compounds, and to an increase in mechanical characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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16 pages, 6103 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Modeling of Polyamide 12 Powder in the Selective Laser Sintering Process Using the Discrete Element Method

by Reda Lakraimi, Hamid Abouchadi, Mourad Taha Janan, Abdellah Chehri and Rachid Saadane

Materials 2023, 16(2), 753; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020753 - 12 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1590

Abstract

Selective laser sintering (SLS) is one of the key additive manufacturing technologies that can build any complex three-dimensional structure without the use of any special tools. Thermal modeling of this process is required to anticipate the quality of the manufactured parts by assessing the microstructure, residual stresses, and structural deformations of the finished product. This paper proposes a framework for the thermal simulation of the SLS process based on the discrete element method (DEM) and numerically generated in Python. This framework simulates a polyamide 12 (PA12) particle domain to describe the temperature evolution in this domain using simple interaction laws between the DEM particles and considering the exchange of these particles with the boundary planes. The results obtained and the comparison with the literature show that the DEM frame accurately captures the temperature distribution in the domain scanned by the laser. The effect of laser power and projection time on the temperature of PA12 particles is investigated and validated with experimental settings to show the reliability of DEM in simulating powder-based additive manufacturing processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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17 pages, 6137 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Assessment Methodology for Laser Metal Deposition of New Metallic Alloys

by Xabier Cearsolo, Mario Arrue, Maitane Gabilondo, Jon Mikel Sanchez, Haize Galarraga, Maider Garcia de Cortazar and Franck Girot Mata

Materials 2023, 16(2), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020636 - 9 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1406

Abstract

Metal additive manufacturing technologies are gaining great interest. However, the existing metallic alloys are generally formulated for conventional manufacturing processes. Thus, it is necessary to adapt their chemical composition or develop new alloys for the manufacturing conditions of additive manufacturing processes. The main method for manufacturing metal powder is gas atomization, but it is very expensive with long manufacturing times. Therefore, it is necessary to develop alloy validation methods that simplify the development process of new alloys. This paper deals with a methodology based on thermodynamic heat transfer equations, simulation, and powderless tests. This novel methodology enabled the determination of the optimal conditions for the laser melting deposition process of the commercial AA7075 alloy with a reduced number of experimental tests with powder, reducing the difficulties inherent to powder processing. The developed process was divided into two stages. In the first stage, the heating of the substrate was studied. In the second stage, the depositions of single tracks were validated with the parameters extrapolated from the previous stage. Hence, it was possible to manufacture single tracks free of cracks with an adequate aspect ratio. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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13 pages, 4172 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Soft Magnetic Material Fe-6.5Si Fracture Obtained by Additive Manufacturing

by Anton V. Agapovichev, Alexander I. Khaimovich, Yaroslav A. Erisov and Mikhail V. Ryazanov

Materials 2022, 15(24), 8915; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15248915 - 13 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1519

Abstract

The freeform capability additive manufacturing (AM) technique and the magnetic efficiency of Fe-6.5Si steel have the potential for the development of electromechanical component designs with thin body sections. Moreover, the directional anisotropy of the material, which is formed during growth, improves the magnetic and electrical properties of Fe-6.5 wt%Si. We obtained the range of optimal technological modes of Laser Power Bed Fusion process (volume energy density (VED) of 100–140 J/mm³, scanning speed of 750–500 mm/s) to produce the samples from Fe-6.5 wt%Si powder, but even at the best of them cracks may appear. The optical microscopy and SEM with EDX analysis of the laser-fabricated structures are applied for investigation of this phenomena. We detected a carbon content at the boundaries of the cracks. This suggests that one of the reasons for the crack formation is the presence of Fe₃C in the area of the ordered

α ’ FeSi (B 2) + {Fe}_{3} Si (D 0_{3})

phases. Quantitative analysis based on crack initiation criteria (CIC) showed that the safe level of internal stresses in terms of the CIC criteria in the area of discontinuities is exceeded by almost 190%. Local precipitates of carbides in the area of cracks are explained by the heterogeneity and high dynamics of temperature fields, as well as the transfer of substances due to Marangoni convection, which, as a result, contributes to a significant segregation of elements and the formation of precipitate phases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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16 pages, 12590 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Additive Manufacturing of CrFeNiTi Multi-Principal Element Alloys

by Marius Reiberg, Leonhard Hitzler, Lukas Apfelbacher, Jochen Schanz, David Kolb, Harald Riegel and Ewald Werner

Materials 2022, 15(22), 7892; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15227892 - 8 Nov 2022

Viewed by 1314

Abstract

High entropy alloys (HEAs) and their closely related variants, called multi-principal element alloys (MPEAs), are the topic of a rather new area of research, and so far, the gathered knowledge is incomplete. This is especially true when it comes to material libraries, as the fabrication of HEA and MPEA samples with a wide variation in chemical compositions is challenging in itself. Additive manufacturing technologies are, to date, seen as possibly the best option to quickly fabricate HEA and MPEA samples, offering both the melting metallurgical and solid-state sintering approach. Within this study, CrFeNiTi MPEA samples were fabricated via laser powder-bed fusion (PBF-LB) and solid-state sintering of mechanically alloyed powder feedstock. The main emphasis is on the PBF-LB process, while solid-state sintering serves as benchmark. Within a volumetric energy density (

V E D

) window of 50 J/mm³ to 83 J/mm³, dense samples with large defect-free sections and an average micro-hardness of 965 HV0.1 were fabricated. Clear correlations between the local chemical alloy composition and the related micro-hardness were recorded, with the main factor being the evaporation of titanium at higher

V E D

settings through a reduction in the C14_Laves phase fraction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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15 pages, 13276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical and Wetting Properties of Ta₂O₅ and ZnO Coatings on Alloy Substrate of Cardiovascular Stents Manufactured by Casting and DMLS

by Diana-Irinel Băilă, Răzvan Păcurar, Tom Savu, Cătălin Zaharia, Roxana Trușcă, Ovidiu Nemeș, Filip Górski, Ancuța Păcurar, Alin Pleșa and Emilia Sabău

Materials 2022, 15(16), 5580; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15165580 - 14 Aug 2022

Viewed by 1660

Abstract

In the last years, additive manufacturing technologies have been developed, especially direct metal laser sintering, and used in the dental and medical implant domains. Cardiovascular stents have evolved from bioinert, bare metal cages to biomimetic devices that promote tissue regeneration or healing. In this paper, comparisons concerning mechanical properties between Co–Cr alloy and cast 304L stainless steel were realized using FEM analysis, necessary for manufacturing cardiovascular stents by DMLS technology using Co–Cr alloy. The purpose of this paper consists of the evaluation of the contact angle at the interface of the Co–Cr alloy manufactured by DMLS, respectively, cast stainless steel 304L, and thin film deposition realized by the e-gun method (Ta₂O₅ and ZnO). Scanning electronic microscopy SEM and EDX techniques were employed for morphological investigation of the sintered samples manufactured by the DMLS process. They were also used for semi-quantitative and qualitative chemical and metallographic analyses. The e-gun coating was used to obtain thin films with the nanometer order of Ta₂O₅ and ZnO with a protective role to improve the corrosion resistance, roughness, and antiseptic role. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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19 pages, 6789 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Absorption and Stiffness of Thin and Thick-Walled Closed-Cell 3D-Printed Structures Fabricated from a Hyperelastic Soft Polymer

by Ajeet Kumar, Luca Collini, Chiara Ursini and Jeng-Ywan Jeng

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2441; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072441 - 25 Mar 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3104

Abstract

This study analyses the energy absorption and stiffness behaviour of 3D-printed supportless, closed-cell lattice structures. The unit cell design is bioinspired by the sea urchin morphology having organism-level biomimicry. This gives rise to an open-cell lattice structure that can be used to produce two different closed-cell structures by closing the openings with thin or thick walls, respectively. In the design phase, the focus is placed on obtaining the same relative density with all structures. The present study demonstrates that closure of the open-cell lattice structure enhances the mechanical properties without affecting the functional requirements. Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) is used to produce the structures via additive manufacturing (AM) using fused filament fabrication (FFF). Uniaxial compression tests are performed to understand the mechanical and functional properties of the structures. Numerical models are developed adopting an advanced material model aimed at studying the hysteretic behaviour of the hyperelastic polymer. The study strengthens design principles for closed-cell lattice structures, highlighting the fact that a thin membrane is the best morphology to enhance structural properties. The results of this study can be generalised and easily applied to applications where functional requirements are of key importance, such as in the production of lightweight midsole shoes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Additive Manufacturing)

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