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Eye-Tracking in Cartography
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Eye-Tracking in Cartography

A special issue of ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information (ISSN 2220-9964).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2022) | Viewed by 23241

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Stanislav Popelka

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Geoinformatics, Palacký University Olomoucm, 17. listopadu 50, 77146 Olomouc, Czech Republic
Interests: cognitive cartography; usability; eye-tracking; 3d visualization; evaluation
Dr. Zdeněk Stachoň

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Geography, Masaryk University, Brno, Kotlářská 2, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
Interests: cartographic visualization; user aspects; virtual environments; eye-tracking; cognitive cartography.
Dr. Peter Kiefer

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Cartography and Geoinformation, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
Interests: gaze-based interaction; spatial cognition; geographic human-computer interaction; location-based services
Prof. Dr. Arzu Çöltekin

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Institute of Interactive Technologies, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Bahnhofstrasse 6, 5210 Brugg-Windisch, Switzerland
Interests: human-computer interaction; eye-tracking; visuospatial cognition; extended reality; visualization; spatial information sciences

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Eye movement analysis is a rich source of information that can be used  to understand a person’s cognitive state, and interpret their cognitive processes as she/he executes visuospatial tasks. Eye-tracking, thus, is an important technique for evaluating and optimizing map design, geographic and other information visualizations, and a wide variety of cartographic products such as map-like displays including 3D representations. In cartography and related fields, understanding the perceptual and cognitive processes involved in tasks such as map reading, route learning and navigation not only enhances our understanding of human factors, but also leads to improved design decisions. With decreasing prices of eye-tracking devices in recent years, as well as promising developments in eye-tracking on smartphones, head-mounted devices, and in extended reality, we see an unprecedented amount of eye movement studies and data in cognitive cartography. Moreover, these technological developments have led to an increased use of eye-tracking for the design of gaze-based interaction, including also the interaction with maps.

Given the description above, we are looking for contributions related, but not limited to, the following topics:

  • User studies with eye-tracking in cartography and related domains
  • Eye-tracking evaluation of static and interactive maps
  • Eye-tracking evaluation of geo- or information visualization displays
  • Mobile eye-tracking for studies of maps and other geo visualizations
  • Methodology of eye movement research in (cognitive) cartography
  • Eye-tracking evaluation of extended reality displays
  • Map optimization using eye-tracking data
  • Verification of cartographic rules using eye-tracking
  • Comparison of visualization methods using eye-tracking data
  • The use of low-cost eye-trackers in cartography
  • Eye-tracking as an input modality for geographic human-computer interaction
  • Development of new eye-tracking tools
  • Combining eye-tracking with other psycho-physiological measurements for cartographic studies
  • Case studies that critically examine eye movement metrics in context
  • Individual and group differences in visuospatial tasks with maps and map-like displays
  • Replication studies (can be exact, or with one variable changed)
  • Comprehensive, systematic and critical literature reviews on any of the topics above

Dr. Stanislav Popelka
Dr. Zdeněk Stachoň
Dr. Peter Kiefer
Prof. Dr. Arzu Çöltekin
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • cartography
  • eye-tracking
  • map-use
  • evaluation
  • cognition
  • perception

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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26 pages, 8470 KiB  
Article
Visual Attention and Recognition Differences Based on Expertise in a Map Reading and Memorability Study
by Merve Keskin, Vassilios Krassanakis and Arzu Çöltekin
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2023, 12(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi12010021 - 12 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3042
Abstract
This study investigates how expert and novice map users’ attention is influenced by the map design characteristics of 2D web maps by building and sharing a framework to analyze large volumes of eye tracking data. Our goal is to respond to the following [...] Read more.
This study investigates how expert and novice map users’ attention is influenced by the map design characteristics of 2D web maps by building and sharing a framework to analyze large volumes of eye tracking data. Our goal is to respond to the following research questions: (i) which map landmarks are easily remembered? (memorability), (ii) how are task difficulty and recognition performance associated? (task difficulty), and (iii) how do experts and novices differ in terms of recognition performance? (expertise). In this context, we developed an automated area-of-interest (AOI) analysis framework to evaluate participants’ fixation durations, and to assess the influence of linear and polygonal map features on spatial memory. Our results demonstrate task-relevant attention patterns by all participants, and better selective attention allocation by experts. However, overall, we observe that task type and map feature type mattered more than expertise when remembering the map content. Predominantly polygonal map features such as hydrographic areas and road junctions serve as attentive features in terms of map reading and memorability. We make our dataset entitled CartoGAZE publicly available. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye-Tracking in Cartography)
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18 pages, 2838 KiB  
Article
Does Culture Shape Our Spatial Ability? An Investigation Based on Eye Tracking
by Yuyang Tian, Tianyu Yang and Weihua Dong
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11(11), 578; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi11110578 - 21 Nov 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2529
Abstract
Culture affects people’s spatial memory, mental representations, and spatial reference frameworks. People with different cultural backgrounds show different degrees of spatial ability. However, the current research does not reveal the shaping of spatial ability by culture from the perspective of visual cognition. In [...] Read more.
Culture affects people’s spatial memory, mental representations, and spatial reference frameworks. People with different cultural backgrounds show different degrees of spatial ability. However, the current research does not reveal the shaping of spatial ability by culture from the perspective of visual cognition. In this study, we used eye tracking and designed mental rotation, spatial visualization, spatial orientation, and spatial correlation tasks to compare the spatial ability of Chinese and Malaysian Chinese people. The results showed that there were some minimal differences between them. Chinese participants had higher accuracy in the mental rotation task, showed more fixation to landmarks in spatial orientation, showed more fixation to the main map, and switched more frequently between the two thematic maps when judging spatial relationships. As “cultural citizens” of China, Malaysian Chinese people’s spatial ability is not only shaped by their own ethnic culture in terms of language but also influenced by foreign races in terms of education, wayfinding tendency, and cognitive style. This study can contribute to the understanding of the influence of culture on spatial ability and its possible causes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye-Tracking in Cartography)
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20 pages, 1535 KiB  
Article
Repertoire and Efficiency of Students’ Strategies for General-Reference Maps
by David Trokšiar, Lenka Havelková and Martin Hanus
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11(2), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi11020138 - 15 Feb 2022
Viewed by 2432
Abstract
Maps are not just powerful tools to communicate spatial information; they also have significant educational potential to develop students’ knowledge, skills, and thinking. To fully exploit this potential, deep research is needed into map-use processes considering the variability of map types and the [...] Read more.
Maps are not just powerful tools to communicate spatial information; they also have significant educational potential to develop students’ knowledge, skills, and thinking. To fully exploit this potential, deep research is needed into map-use processes considering the variability of map types and the cognitive complexity of map operations. Whereas research on map reading is relatively common, the research into cognitively more demanding operations is lacking. Therefore, this study employed an eye-tracking experiment combined with a follow-up questionnaire with 20 upper-secondary students to examine the strategies students choose when analyzing general-reference maps. Specifically, attention is paid to the strategy repertoire, distribution, efficiency, and adaptiveness of strategy choice. Subsequently, the study is focused on students’ perception of strategies. According to the results, participants used a rich repertoire of strategies (although many of them unconsciously) and adapted the strategy choice to task demands. The solution efficiency varied among task demands, as did the efficiency of individual strategies and their combinations. The research design allowed a comparison with earlier studies on strategies for thematic map use. The results should be of interest to cartographers (to design effective educational tools) and educators (to educate map users complexly and effectively). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye-Tracking in Cartography)
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18 pages, 3976 KiB  
Article
Toward Gaze-Based Map Interactions: Determining the Dwell Time and Buffer Size for the Gaze-Based Selection of Map Features
by Hua Liao, Changbo Zhang, Wendi Zhao and Weihua Dong
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2022, 11(2), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi11020127 - 10 Feb 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3421
Abstract
The modes of interaction (e.g., mouse and touch) between maps and users affect the effectiveness and efficiency of transmitting cartographic information. Recent advances in eye tracking technology have made eye trackers lighter, cheaper and more accurate, broadening the potential to interact with maps [...] Read more.
The modes of interaction (e.g., mouse and touch) between maps and users affect the effectiveness and efficiency of transmitting cartographic information. Recent advances in eye tracking technology have made eye trackers lighter, cheaper and more accurate, broadening the potential to interact with maps via gaze. In this study, we focused exclusively on using gaze to choose map features (i.e., points, polylines and polygons) via the select operation, a fundamental action preceding other operations in map interactions. We adopted an approach based on the dwell time and buffer size to address the low spatial accuracy and Midas touch problem in gaze-based interactions and to determine the most suitable dwell time and buffer size for the gaze-based selection of map features. We conducted an experiment in which 38 participants completed a series of map feature selection tasks via gaze. We compared the participants’ performance (efficiency and accuracy) between different combinations of dwell times (200 ms, 600 ms and 1000 ms) and buffer sizes (point: 1°, 1.5°, and 2°; polyline: 0.5°, 0.7° and 1°). The results confirmed that a larger buffer size raised efficiency but reduced accuracy, whereas a longer dwell time lowered efficiency but enhanced accuracy. Specifically, we found that a 600 ms dwell time was more efficient in selecting map features than 200 ms and 1000 ms but was less accurate than 1000 ms. However, 600 ms was considered to be more appropriate than 1000 ms because a longer dwell time has a higher risk of causing visual fatigue. Therefore, 600 ms supports a better balance between accuracy and efficiency. Additionally, we found that buffer sizes of 1.5° and 0.7° were more efficient and more accurate than other sizes for selecting points and polylines, respectively. Our results provide important empirical evidence for choosing the most appropriate dwell times and buffer sizes for gaze-based map interactions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye-Tracking in Cartography)
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19 pages, 145878 KiB  
Article
Virtual Prospecting in Paleontology Using a Drone-Based Orthomosaic Map: An Eye Movement Analysis
by Tanya Beelders and Gavin Dollman
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10(11), 753; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10110753 - 9 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1894
Abstract
Paleontological fieldwork is often a time-consuming process and resource intensive. With unexplored and remote areas, the satellite images, geology, and topography of an area are analyzed to help survey for a site. A drone-based orthomosaic map is suggested as an additional tool for [...] Read more.
Paleontological fieldwork is often a time-consuming process and resource intensive. With unexplored and remote areas, the satellite images, geology, and topography of an area are analyzed to help survey for a site. A drone-based orthomosaic map is suggested as an additional tool for virtual paleontology fossil prospecting. The use of an orthomosaic map was compared to the use of a typical satellite map when looking for fossil sites to prospect. Factors were chosen for their impact when prospecting for a fossil site and availability of data. Eye movement data were captured for a convenience sample of paleontologists from a local university. Each band within the satellite map measures 7741 × 7821 with a ground resolution of 30 m/pix, and the ground resolution of the orthomosaic map is 2.86 cm/pix with a resolution of 52,634 × 32,383. Experts displayed a gaze behavior suggestive of high analysis levels as well as being able to identify and analyze features rapidly—this is illustrated through the presence of both longer and shorter fixations. However, experts appeared to look at both maps in more detail than novices. The orthomosaic map was very successful at both attracting and keeping the attention of the map reader on certain features. It was concluded that an orthomosaic-based drone map used in conjunction with a satellite map is a useful tool for high spatial density virtual prospecting for novices and experts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye-Tracking in Cartography)
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22 pages, 7638 KiB  
Article
A Visual Attention Model Based on Eye Tracking in 3D Scene Maps
by Bincheng Yang and Hongwei Li
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10(10), 664; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10100664 - 1 Oct 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3382
Abstract
Visual attention plays a crucial role in the map-reading process and is closely related to the map cognitive process. Eye-tracking data contains a wealth of visual information that can be used to identify cognitive behavior during map reading. Nevertheless, few researchers have applied [...] Read more.
Visual attention plays a crucial role in the map-reading process and is closely related to the map cognitive process. Eye-tracking data contains a wealth of visual information that can be used to identify cognitive behavior during map reading. Nevertheless, few researchers have applied these data to quantifying visual attention. This study proposes a method for quantitatively calculating visual attention based on eye-tracking data for 3D scene maps. First, eye-tracking technology was used to obtain the differences in the participants’ gaze behavior when browsing a street view map in the desktop environment, and to establish a quantitative relationship between eye movement indexes and visual saliency. Then, experiments were carried out to determine the quantitative relationship between visual saliency and visual factors, using vector 3D scene maps as stimulus material. Finally, a visual attention model was obtained by fitting the data. It was shown that a combination of three visual factors can represent the visual attention value of a 3D scene map: color, shape, and size, with a goodness of fit (R2) greater than 0.699. The current research helps to determine and quantify the visual attention allocation during map reading, laying the foundation for automated machine mapping. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye-Tracking in Cartography)
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Other

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8 pages, 255 KiB  
Perspective
Eye Tracking Research in Cartography: Looking into the Future
by Vassilios Krassanakis and Paweł Cybulski
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2021, 10(6), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10060411 - 14 Jun 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3977
Abstract
Eye tracking has been served as one of the most objective and valuable tools towards the examination of both map perceptual and cognitive processes. The aim of the present article is to concisely present the contribution of eye tracking research in cartography, indicating [...] Read more.
Eye tracking has been served as one of the most objective and valuable tools towards the examination of both map perceptual and cognitive processes. The aim of the present article is to concisely present the contribution of eye tracking research in cartography, indicating the existing literature, as well as the current research trends in the examined domain. The authors discuss the existing challenges and provide their perspectives about the future outlook of cartographic eye tracking experimentation by reporting specific key approaches that could be integrated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye-Tracking in Cartography)
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