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Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety

A special issue of International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (ISSN 1660-4601). This special issue belongs to the section "Children's Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 December 2020) | Viewed by 74143

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Kinga Polańska

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Hazards, Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, 91-348 Lodz, Poland
2. Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Medical University of Lodz, 90-419 Lodz, Poland
Interests: environmental exposure; pregnancy; birth outcomes; child health; child neurodevelopment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Peter Van den Hazel

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
Public Health Services Gelderland-Midden and International Network on Children’s Health, Environment and Safety (INCHES)
Interests: children; environment; health; risk communication; science policy transfer; prenatal exposure; child neurodevelopment

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are organizing a Special Issue on “Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety” under the section of Children’s Health in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.

Exposure to environmental and lifestyle factors during the prenatal, or even preconception period, and in the first years of life may have an impact on a children’s development and health across their whole life course. At present, special attention is focused on endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs); however, there is still concern about the health impact of air pollution, climate change, heavy metals, and life-style related factors, including diet and nutrition, physical activity, substance abuse, as well as tobacco smoke. The social context and genetic susceptibility need to also be considered. All of the mentioned factors interact with each other and should be considered as part of the complex exposure that may affect offspring, causing adverse health effects. The following child health outcomes related to environmental exposure are of special interest: birth weight, adiposity, and cardiometabolic, respiratory, and neurodevelopmental health effects. Finally, prevention in public health is not enough when it comes to the protection of children’s environmental health. Health policies on intervention, implementation of best practices to protect children, and measures to avoid unnecessary exposures during the early stages of life should all be more advanced, visible, and strengthened.

This Special Issue of IJERPH, entitled “Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety”, welcomes the submission of manuscripts either describing original research or reviewing the scientific literature. Manuscripts must have a clear focus on investigating the association between exposure to environmental factors during prenatal and postnatal periods and pregnancy outcomes and children’s health and development, respectively. Special emphasis will be given to evaluation, and implementation of interventions aimed at improvement of children’s health.

Dr. Kinga Polanska
Dr. Peter van den Hazel
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2500 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Environmental hazards
  • Pregnancy outcomes
  • Children’s health
  • Neurodevelopment
  • Vulnerable populations
  • Health promoting settings and policies
  • Public health

Published Papers (15 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

8 pages, 324 KiB  
Article
Nonmedical Use of Benzodiazepines among Immigrant and Native-Born Adolescents in Spain: National Trends and Related Factors
by Pilar Carrasco-Garrido, Dania Rocío Díaz Rodríguez, Isabel Jiménez-Trujillo, Valentín Hernández-Barrera, Lidiane Lima Florencio and Domingo Palacios-Ceña
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(3), 1171; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031171 - 28 Jan 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1929
Abstract
Background: the nonmedical use of prescribed medications among adolescents has increased significantly in recent years. We aimed to identify the patterns of benzodiazepine nonmedical use and its evolution during the decade 2006–2016 among immigrant and native-born adolescent populations. Methods: we used individualized secondary [...] Read more.
Background: the nonmedical use of prescribed medications among adolescents has increased significantly in recent years. We aimed to identify the patterns of benzodiazepine nonmedical use and its evolution during the decade 2006–2016 among immigrant and native-born adolescent populations. Methods: we used individualized secondary data retrieved from the 2006–2016 Spanish State Survey on Drug Use in Secondary Education (ESTUDES) of the school-aged population. Using logistic multivariate regression models, we estimated the independent effect of each of these variables on nonmedical use. Two models were generated: one for immigrant adolescents and one for native-born adolescents. Results: during the decade 2006–2016, 2.81% of native-born and 3.36% of immigrant adolescent students made nonmedical use of benzodiazepines. Gender and socioeconomic status were found to be related to the nonmedical use of benzodiazepines. Consumption of illegal psychoactive substances, other than marijuana, was the variable of greatest value (aOR = 6.00, 95% CI 3.89–9.27). Perceived risks and drug availability were found to be predictors for the nonmedical use of benzodiazepines in both immigrant and native-born adolescents. Conclusion: in Spain, patterns of benzodiazepine nonmedical use among immigrant and native-born adolescents are similar. The results of this study refute certain stereotypes related to consumption of substances among immigrant adolescents, identifying them as a risk group. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
14 pages, 3066 KiB  
Article
Identification of Nutritional Targets in Spanish Children Belonging to the LAyDI Cohort for the Development of Health Promotion Strategies in the First Two Years of Life
by María Gómez-Martín, Begoña Domínguez, Miguel Gueimonde and Sonia González
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(3), 939; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18030939 - 22 Jan 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2366
Abstract
The first 1000 days of life seem to represent the temporal window of opportunity for modulating some of the risk factors associated with the later development of pathologies. Nonetheless, the dietary pattern and nutritional status of children receiving complementary feeding is still understudied. [...] Read more.
The first 1000 days of life seem to represent the temporal window of opportunity for modulating some of the risk factors associated with the later development of pathologies. Nonetheless, the dietary pattern and nutritional status of children receiving complementary feeding is still understudied. We aimed to assess the food intake in children from the LAyDI cohort (Spain) at 18 and 24 months of age and evaluate this in relation to nutrient requirements and bioactive compound consumption. This was a prospective and multicenter study analyzing information from administered questionnaires about general characteristics and food frequency consumption in 426 children of 18 months and 336 of 24 months. The observed intake of vegetables, fruits, dairy, and eggs was lower than the recommendations in both periods, contrary to the consumption of meat, fish, and pulses. The consumption of energy and macronutrients was similar for all ages studied, with protein intake being slightly higher than the recommended values. Regarding micronutrients, practically the whole sample fell below the vitamin D requirements. In addition, the estimated daily intakes of vitamin E and iron, at 24 months, were below the recommended values for this population group. The mean intake of phenols was around 650 mg/day. Flavanol intake as well as both types of fiber decreased from 18 to 24 months. In conclusion, although these results have to be confirmed in other populations, it seems pertinent to propose the design of nutritional strategies aimed at increasing the intake of vitamins D and E as well as iron in Spanish children up to 2 years. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
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21 pages, 386 KiB  
Article
The Relationship between Neighborhood Environment and Child Mental Health in Japanese Elementary School Students
by Rikuya Hosokawa and Toshiki Katsura
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(15), 5491; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155491 - 29 Jul 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3178
Abstract
Limited research has examined the relationship between neighborhood environment and mental health outcomes in elementary school students (middle childhood). In countries with high relative poverty, little is known about how neighborhood conditions are related to children’s health after controlling for family socioeconomic status; [...] Read more.
Limited research has examined the relationship between neighborhood environment and mental health outcomes in elementary school students (middle childhood). In countries with high relative poverty, little is known about how neighborhood conditions are related to children’s health after controlling for family socioeconomic status; thus, it is necessary to distinguish the particular neighborhood characteristics relevant to behavioral risk in children, independent of socioeconomic position. Using a self-report survey completed by parents, we assessed neighborhood environment characteristics, children’s behavioral outcomes, and family socioeconomic status in fourth grade students from Nagoya, in Aichi prefecture, Japan (n = 695). A multiple linear regression was conducted to evaluate to what extent neighborhood characteristics predict child behaviors, after adjusting for socioeconomic variables. Greater aesthetic quality, walkability, accessibility of healthy foods, safety, and social cohesion were inversely linked to children’s behavioral problems and positively linked to social competence, suggesting that quality of living environment may affect behavioral outcomes in children, even after controlling for socioeconomic factors. Developing a quality environment that matches these characteristics may minimize the negative impact of a family’s socioeconomic distress and is likely to aid socioeconomically disadvantaged parents and their children. Thus, policies and programs that enhance the neighborhood environment for socioeconomically disadvantaged families should be promoted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
11 pages, 367 KiB  
Article
Nutritional Quality of Hidden Food and Beverage Advertising Directed to Children: Extent and Nature of Product Placement in Mexican Television Programs
by Ana Munguía-Serrano, Lizbeth Tolentino-Mayo, Florence L. Théodore and Stefanie Vandevijvere
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(9), 3086; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17093086 - 29 Apr 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5690
Abstract
(1) Background: Nutrient-poor, energy-dense food and beverage (F&B) advertisements influence children’s food preferences, consumption, and purchase requests, contributing to overweight and obesity. Objective: To characterize the nutritional quality of F&B advertised by product placement (PP) in Mexican television programs with the highest audience [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Nutrient-poor, energy-dense food and beverage (F&B) advertisements influence children’s food preferences, consumption, and purchase requests, contributing to overweight and obesity. Objective: To characterize the nutritional quality of F&B advertised by product placement (PP) in Mexican television programs with the highest audience ratings for children. (2) Methods: A total of 48 h of television programs between December 2016 and January 2017 during the hours with the highest ratings for children were analyzed. Nutritional quality was assessed through the Mexican Ministry of Health (MMH-NPM), the World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe (WHO-Europe), and the Pan American Health Organization nutrient profile models (PAHO-NPM). (3) Results: A total of 119 F&B were broadcast, of which more than 60% were unhealthy according to the three nutritional models. Reality shows and movies presented the most PP advertising. The food category most frequently advertised was sugar-sweetened beverages (41.2%). F&B advertised in children’s programs had a higher content of energy, total fat, and saturated fat (p < 0.01). (4) Conclusion: The MMH-NPM was the most permissive and the PAHO-NPM was the strictest for evaluating nutritional quality. Mexico must strengthen the regulation of advertising to protect children from its negative effects on health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
32 pages, 2160 KiB  
Article
Prevalence of Undernutrition and Anemia among Santal Adivasi Children, Birbhum District, West Bengal, India
by Caroline Katharina Stiller, Silvia Konstanze Ellen Golembiewski, Monika Golembiewski, Srikanta Mondal, Hans-Konrad Biesalski and Veronika Scherbaum
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17(1), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17010342 - 03 Jan 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5915
Abstract
India’s Adivasi scheduled tribe population is disproportionately affected by undernutrition and anemia, thereby prevailing in the poorest wealth deciles denominated as socially and economically vulnerable. This study was designed to assess the extent of child undernutrition (conventional and composite index of anthropometric failure [...] Read more.
India’s Adivasi scheduled tribe population is disproportionately affected by undernutrition and anemia, thereby prevailing in the poorest wealth deciles denominated as socially and economically vulnerable. This study was designed to assess the extent of child undernutrition (conventional and composite index of anthropometric failure (CIAF) classification), as well as the burden of anemia in children and its independent nutrition specific and sensitive drivers, moreover to reflect the living conditions of Santal Adivasis. The research survey was conducted in 21 Santal villages, Birbhum District, West Bengal, in 2015. An overall 307 children (aged 6–39 months) and their mothers (n = 288) were assessed for their hemoglobin (Hb) levels (HemoCue Hb201+) and anthropometric indices such as height/length, weight and mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC). Moreover, socio-demographic household characteristics were surveyed. The study confirmed Adivasi children lagging behind national average with a high prevalence of undernutrition (height-for-age z-score (HAZ) 51.9%, weight-for-age z-score (WAZ) 49.2%, weight-for-height z-score WHZ 19.0% and CIAF 61.6%) and of moderate and severe anemia (Hb < 10 g/dL, 73.3% altogether). Child’s age <24 months, low WAZ scores, morbidity (any fever, diarrhea or respiratory infection) on the checkup day or during previous week, low maternal Hb level, and lack of dietary diversification were identified as predictors for anemia, thereby warrant targeted interventions to decrease the high anemia rates assessed in the study site. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
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16 pages, 719 KiB  
Article
Alcohol Consumption Among Spanish Female Adolescents: Related Factors and National Trends 2006–2014
by Nazaret Alonso-Fernández, Isabel Jiménez-Trujillo, Valentín Hernández-Barrera, Domingo Palacios-Ceña and Pilar Carrasco-Garrido
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(21), 4294; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214294 - 05 Nov 2019
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2650
Abstract
Background: The purpose of this study was: (a) to estimate trends over time in the prevalence of alcohol consumption among female adolescents between 2006 and 2014; (b) to identify the factors associated with the probability of consuming alcohol during this period for Spanish [...] Read more.
Background: The purpose of this study was: (a) to estimate trends over time in the prevalence of alcohol consumption among female adolescents between 2006 and 2014; (b) to identify the factors associated with the probability of consuming alcohol during this period for Spanish female adolescents (14–18 years old). Methods: Spanish nationwide, epidemiological, cross-sectional study on alcohol consumption by adolescent women. We used individualized secondary data retrieved from the 2006 and 2014 Spanish state survey on drug use in secondary education, for a total of 48,676 survey respondents aged 14 to 18 years. Alcohol use was the dependent variable. We also analyzed sociodemographic and educational features, lifestyle habits, perceived health risk for consumption, and perceived availability of substance using logistic regression models. Results: The prevalence of alcohol consumption among female adolescents was 62.35% during the study period. Alcohol consumption increased with age and was more frequent on weekends than on school days. The variables associated with a greater probability of alcohol consumption were tobacco, marijuana (aOR = 2.37; 95% CI: 2.08–2.72), and alcohol consumption by friends (aOR = 7.24; 95% CI: 6.42–8.16). Conclusions: Alcohol consumption by female adolescents in Spain significantly increased from 2006 to 2014. Marijuana and alcohol consumption by friends were associated factors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
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12 pages, 783 KiB  
Article
Impact of Carers’ Smoking Status on Childhood Obesity in the Growing up in Ireland Cohort Study
by Salome Sunday and Zubair Kabir
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(15), 2759; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16152759 - 02 Aug 2019
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4996
Abstract
Childhood obesity is a growing concern worldwide. The association between childhood obesity and maternal smoking and/or paternal smoking has been reported. However, few studies have explored the association between childhood obesity and exposure to carers’ smoking status. This study aimed to assess the [...] Read more.
Childhood obesity is a growing concern worldwide. The association between childhood obesity and maternal smoking and/or paternal smoking has been reported. However, few studies have explored the association between childhood obesity and exposure to carers’ smoking status. This study aimed to assess the impact of carers’ smoking status on childhood obesity in a cohort of children enrolled in the Growing up in Ireland (GUI) study. Participants from the GUI infant cohort were categorized into four groups based on their exposure status: Neither caregiver smoked (60.4%), only primary caregiver smoked (13.4%), both caregivers smoked (10.9%). Exposure to primary carers’ smoking (98% are biological mothers) was found to be significantly associated with childhood overweight/obesity at age three (Odds Ratio: 1.30, 95% CI: 1.17–1.46) and at age five (OR: 1.31, 95% CI: 1.16–1.49). Exposure to both carers’ smoking status was significantly associated with increased odds of childhood overweight/obesity across both waves. These findings emphasize the health burden of childhood obesity that may be attributable to maternal smoking postnatally and through early childhood in Ireland. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
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14 pages, 305 KiB  
Article
Adverse Childhood Experiences of Urban and Rural Preschool Children in Poverty
by Leanne Whiteside-Mansell, Lorraine McKelvey, Jennifer Saccente and James P. Selig
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(14), 2623; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142623 - 23 Jul 2019
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6326
Abstract
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have long-term health consequences. Young children in the southern part of the United States (US) are at greater risk than children in other parts of the US. This study assessed preschool children ACEs using a family-friendly tool, the Family [...] Read more.
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have long-term health consequences. Young children in the southern part of the United States (US) are at greater risk than children in other parts of the US. This study assessed preschool children ACEs using a family-friendly tool, the Family Map (FMI), and compared children living in rural/urban areas while examining the potential moderation of race. The FMI–ACE score was examined as a total and two sub-scores. We found that race did not moderate the FMI–ACE score but that Black children (Cohen’s d = 0.52) and children in urban and large rural areas were at highest risk (Cohen’s d = 0.38). However, the subscale FMI–ACEs parenting risk was moderated by race such as that Black children were less at risk in rural areas than urban (Cohen’s d = 0.62). For FMI–ACEs environmental risk, race moderated risk such that Black children were most at risk in large rural areas but less so in small rural areas (Cohen’s d = 0.21). Hispanic children were most at risk in small rural areas and least in large rural environments. Findings from this study suggest that targeting the most at-risk children for interventions should consider the context including race and location. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
17 pages, 1399 KiB  
Article
Dose–Response Relationship of Outdoor Exposure and Myopia Indicators: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Various Research Methods
by Ciao-Lin Ho, Wei-Fong Wu and Yiing Mei Liou
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(14), 2595; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142595 - 21 Jul 2019
Cited by 58 | Viewed by 9205
Abstract
Myopia in children has dramatically increased worldwide. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to evaluate the effects of outdoor light exposure on myopia. According to research data from 13 studies of 15,081 children aged 4–14 at baseline, outdoor light exposure significantly reduced [...] Read more.
Myopia in children has dramatically increased worldwide. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to evaluate the effects of outdoor light exposure on myopia. According to research data from 13 studies of 15,081 children aged 4–14 at baseline, outdoor light exposure significantly reduced myopia incidence/prevalence (odds ratio [OR] = 0.85, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.80–0.91, p < 0.00001; I2 = 90%), spherical equivalent refractive error (SER) by 0.15 D/year (0.09–0.27, p < 0.0001), and axial elongation by 0.08 mm/year (−0.14 to −0.02, p = 0.02). The benefits of outdoor light exposure intervention, according to pooled overall results, included decreases in three myopia indicators: 50% in myopia incidence, 32.9% in SER, and 24.9% in axial elongation for individuals in Asia. Daily outdoor light exposure of more than 120 min was the most effective intervention, and weekly intervention time exhibited a dose–response relationship with all three indicators. Subgroup comparisons revealed that interventional studies report greater benefits from outdoor light exposure compared with cohort and cross-sectional studies, and individuals with myopia in intervention studies experienced slightly greater benefits than individuals without, in terms of SER and axial elongation. Therefore, this study suggests 120 min/day of outdoor light exposure at school. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
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12 pages, 326 KiB  
Article
The Relationship between Parental Perception of Neighborhood Collective Efficacy and Physical Violence by Parents against Preschool Children: A Cross-Sectional Study in a County of China
by Haixue Wang, Jingqi Chen and Linjing Lyu
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(13), 2306; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132306 - 28 Jun 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2477
Abstract
Children exposed to negative neighborhood environments are at high risk of experiencing violence. This study aimed to explore the effects of parental perception of neighborhood collective efficacy on parental physical violence (PV) to their preschool children in a county of China. A total [...] Read more.
Children exposed to negative neighborhood environments are at high risk of experiencing violence. This study aimed to explore the effects of parental perception of neighborhood collective efficacy on parental physical violence (PV) to their preschool children in a county of China. A total of 1337 parents from nine kindergartens were recruited by the stratified random cluster sampling method. Data about parental PV behavior toward children during the past three months, parental perception of neighborhood collective efficacy, together with their attitudes towards the use of corporal punishment to discipline children, and demographic characteristics were collected. Their relationships were investigated by applying multivariable logistic regression models. Overall, 67.5% of the parents reported at least one form of PV during the past three months. The rates of minor PV (MPV) and severe PV (SPV) were 67% and 22.8%, respectively. The results of multivariate logistic regression showed that only social cohesion was associated with lower odds of parental PV and MPV behavior after controlling for covariates. The results suggest that neighborhood collective efficacy is associated with parental PV behavior against their children to some extent, but the effects differ according to the severity level of PV. Neighborhood social cohesion may have a positive role in reducing parental PV behavior in the county surveyed at present study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
10 pages, 945 KiB  
Article
Active Tobacco Smoke Exposure in Utero and Concentrations of Hepcidin and Selected Iron Parameters in Newborns
by Magdalena Chełchowska, Tomasz M. Maciejewski, Joanna Mazur, Joanna Gajewska, Anastasiya Zasimovich, Mariusz Ołtarzewski and Jadwiga Ambroszkiewicz
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(11), 1996; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16111996 - 05 Jun 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2579
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess the influence of active tobacco smoke exposure in utero on the concentration of hepcidin and selected iron markers in umbilical cord blood and to evaluate the relationships between these parameters. Newborns of smoking mothers had [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to assess the influence of active tobacco smoke exposure in utero on the concentration of hepcidin and selected iron markers in umbilical cord blood and to evaluate the relationships between these parameters. Newborns of smoking mothers had significantly lower concentrations of serum hepcidin (p < 0.001), iron, and ferritin (p = 0.043; p = 0.042, respectively), but higher levels of erythropoietin (EPO, p < 0.001) and soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR, p = 0.011) compared with newborns of non-smoking women. Negative correlations between cotinine and the number of cigarettes smoked per day with hepcidin serum level (r = −0.33, p = 0.033, r = −0.32, p = 0.041, respectively) and EPO (r = 0.47, p = 0.002; r = 0.46, p = 0.003, respectively) were found. Univariate analysis defined for the whole group of children revealed significant associations between the concentration of hepcidin and other iron status parameters. In the models estimated separately for smokers and non-smokers, we found relations between the level of hepcidin and erythropoietin (B = −0.23, p = 0.004; B = −0.46, p = 0.01, respectively). In the multivariate regression model, a negative association between hepcidin and EPO concentrations in the whole group of newborns (β = −0.53; p = 0.001) and in the group of smokers (β = −0.57; p = 0.011) was confirmed. The present study shows significant relations between smoking during pregnancy and hepcidin levels in children born at term. Decreased cord serum concentrations of hepcidin associated with high erythropoietin levels suggest induced fetal erythropoiesis, probably due to the hypoxic effects imposed by maternal smoking. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
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7 pages, 295 KiB  
Article
Prescription Infant Formulas Are Contaminated with Aluminium
by James Redgrove, Isabel Rodriguez, Subramanian Mahadevan-Bava and Christopher Exley
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(5), 899; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16050899 - 12 Mar 2019
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7838
Abstract
Historical and recent data demonstrate that off-the-shelf infant formulas are heavily contaminated with aluminium. The origin of this contamination remains to be elucidated though may be imported via ingredients, packaging and processing. Specialised infant formulas exist to address health issues, such as low [...] Read more.
Historical and recent data demonstrate that off-the-shelf infant formulas are heavily contaminated with aluminium. The origin of this contamination remains to be elucidated though may be imported via ingredients, packaging and processing. Specialised infant formulas exist to address health issues, such as low birth weight, allergy or intolerance and medical conditions, such as renal insufficiency. The aluminium content of these prescription infant formulas is measured here for the first time. We obtained 24 prescription infant formulas through a paediatric clinic and measured their total aluminium content by transversely heated graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry following microwave assisted acid/peroxide digestion. The aluminium content of ready-to-drink formulas ranged from 49.9 (33.7) to 1956.3 (111.0) μg/L. The most heavily contaminated products were those designed as nutritional supplements for infants struggling to gain weight. The aluminium content of powdered formulas ranged from 0.27 (0.04) to 3.27 (0.19) μg/g. The most heavily contaminated products tended to be those addressing allergies and intolerance. Prescription infant formulas are contaminated with aluminium. Ready-made formulas available as nutritional supplements to aid infant growth contained some of the highest concentrations of aluminium in infant formulas measured in our laboratory. However, a number of prescription infant formulas contained the lowest concentrations of aluminium yet measured in our laboratory. These higher cost specialist preparations demonstrate that the contamination of infant formulas by aluminium is not inevitable. They represent what is achievable should manufacturers wish to address the threat posed to health through infant exposure to aluminium. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
18 pages, 353 KiB  
Article
Combined Assessment of Preschool Childrens’ Exposure to Substances in Household Products
by Joo-hyon Kim and Kwangseol Seok
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(5), 733; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16050733 - 28 Feb 2019
Viewed by 2367
Abstract
Understanding how indoor-air contaminants affect human health is of critical importance in our developed society. We assessed the combined exposure by inhalation of preschool children and children to household products. A total of 1175 families with 72 infants, 158 toddlers, 230 children, and [...] Read more.
Understanding how indoor-air contaminants affect human health is of critical importance in our developed society. We assessed the combined exposure by inhalation of preschool children and children to household products. A total of 1175 families with 72 infants, 158 toddlers, 230 children, and 239 youths were surveyed to determine the combined respiratory exposure concentrations and amounts associated with 21 substances in eight household product groups. We determined the mean concentrations of these substances in each product, and derived reference toxicity values based on the information gathered in order to identify respiratory health risks. On average, cleaners were used at a rate of 1.0 × 103 g/month, while coating agents and other substances were used at 43 g/month. The combined inhalation exposure concentrations of methanol to infants and toddlers were 5.1 and 4.2 mg/m3 per month, respectively, with values of 2.1 and 1.7 mg/m3 for isopropanol, respectively. Risks to preschool children and children should be assessed on the basis of the toxicity values of combined exposed hazardous substances, as well as their combined concentrations and amounts. This exposure assessment approach can be used to establish improved guidelines for products that may pose inhalation hazards to preschool children and children. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)

Review

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35 pages, 605 KiB  
Review
What Is the Relationship between the Neighbourhood Built Environment and Time Spent in Outdoor Play? A Systematic Review
by Amalie Lambert, Janae Vlaar, Susan Herrington and Mariana Brussoni
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(20), 3840; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16203840 - 11 Oct 2019
Cited by 62 | Viewed by 8845
Abstract
Outdoor play has been associated with children’s and adolescents’ healthy development and physical activity. Attributes of the neighbourhood built environment can influence play behaviours. This systematic review examined the relationship between attributes of the neighbourhood built environment and the time children and adolescents [...] Read more.
Outdoor play has been associated with children’s and adolescents’ healthy development and physical activity. Attributes of the neighbourhood built environment can influence play behaviours. This systematic review examined the relationship between attributes of the neighbourhood built environment and the time children and adolescents (0–18 years) spend in self-directed outdoor play. We identified and evaluated 18 relevant papers using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool and developed a narrative synthesis of study results. We found moderate evidence that lower traffic volumes (ages 6–11), yard access (ages 3–10), and increased neighbourhood greenness (ages 2–15) were positively associated with time spent in outdoor play, as well as limited evidence that specific traffic-calming street features such as fewer intersections, low traffic speeds, neighbourhood disorder, and low residential density were positively associated with time spent in outdoor play. To our knowledge, this is the first systematic review on this topic. The limited number of “good quality” studies identified highlights the need for additional research on the topic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
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9 pages, 916 KiB  
Review
The Association between Bisphenol A Exposure and Obesity in Children—A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis
by Ka Young Kim, Eunil Lee and Yanghee Kim
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16(14), 2521; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142521 - 15 Jul 2019
Cited by 66 | Viewed by 6519
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA) is an environmental chemical that has adverse effects on health, probably causing childhood obesity. However, this association remains controversial, and it is difficult to find evidence for direct causality between environmental exposure and disease using epidemiological studies. In this study, [...] Read more.
Bisphenol A (BPA) is an environmental chemical that has adverse effects on health, probably causing childhood obesity. However, this association remains controversial, and it is difficult to find evidence for direct causality between environmental exposure and disease using epidemiological studies. In this study, we sought to elucidate the possible causality between BPA exposure and childhood obesity by conducting two meta-analyses showing bidirectional associations, including exposure effect by obesity and obesity risk by exposure. Articles published up to September 2017 were searched in PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library. We evaluated observational studies that included measurements of urinary BPA concentration and BMI or body weight. Of 436 articles, a total of 13 studies were included in the meta-analysis. Two meta-analyses were performed to investigate the association between BPA exposure and childhood obesity. The results showed that the relatively high-exposed group had a significantly higher risk of childhood obesity than the relatively low-exposed group (odds ratio = 1.566, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.097 to 2.234, p = 0.014). However, the obese group showed no significant difference in the BPA concentration when compared to the normal group (standardized mean difference = 0.166, 95% CI: −0.121 to 0.453, p = 0.257). This study suggested possible causality between BPA exposure and childhood obesity using data from epidemiological studies and showed that BPA exposure itself increased the risk of obesity in children. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Factors, Children’s Health and Safety)
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