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Geosciences
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Snow Avalanche Dynamics
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Snow Avalanche Dynamics

A special issue of Geosciences (ISSN 2076-3263). This special issue belongs to the section "Natural Hazards".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2020) | Viewed by 59404

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Emeritus Kouichi Nishimura

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Guest Editor
Nagoya University, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya, Japan
Interests: snow avalanche dynamics; snow avalanche forecasting; blowing snow
Prof. Dr. Fabrizio Barpi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Structural, Geotechnical and Building Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Torino, Italy
Interests: computational mechanics; fracture mechanics of concrete; snow behavior; avalanche dynamics; dam engineering; engineering education
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Jim McElwaine

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Durham, UK
Interests: avalanches; turbidity currents; segregation; gravity currents; granular flows; debris flows; two-phase flows
Dr. Dieter Issler

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Natural Hazards Division, Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Oslo, Norway
Interests: physics; gravity mass movements; snow; snow avalanches; submarine debris flows and turbidity currents; flow regimes; erosion and entrainment; numerical modeling

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

A snow avalanche is a typical example of geophysical grain-flows, which are usually composed of snow particles and air. For a long period, the dynamics and structures of snow avalanches could not be investigated in detail, mainly because natural avalanches break out accidentally and precise data were usually very difficult to obtain. However, with the development of new technologies, numerous full-scale experiments have been carried out for small-to-large snow avalanches, particularly in the last decade. Further, in order to obtain detailed data and insights on the physically significant dynamical processes controlling avalanches, small scale experiments were conducted. In addition, avalanche dynamics models from a simple mass-point model to a fine full 3D method have been proposed. These approaches are of importance for avalanche risk management, for instance, the validation of dynamical models, hazard mapping, a proper design of structural protection, and the development of early warning systems.

This Special Issue invites submissions covering all aspects of avalanche dynamics: incidents report, field measurements, small scale experiments, and modeling. Topics on the mechanical properties and snow-cover properties are limited to avalanche flow dynamics, and introduction on specific avalanche event is also welcome. It is recommended that potentially-interested contributors approach the Guest Editors at an early stage about possible submissions in order to verify the appropriateness of their proposed study. If appropriate, an abstract will be requested.

Prof. Koichi Nishimura
Prof. Fabrizio Barpi
Prof. Dr. Jim McElwaine
Dr. Dieter Issler
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Geosciences is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Analyses of snow avalanche measurements or observations
  • Small scale measurements
  • Modeling of snow avalanche dynamics
  • Interaction of avalanches with obstacles or forest
  • Strategies for applying avalanche models to hazard mitigation
  • Snow mechanics
  • In situ snow tests
  • Laboratory snow tests
  • Experimental site

Published Papers (16 papers)

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Research

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34 pages, 40607 KiB  
Article
The 2017 Rigopiano Avalanche—Dynamics Inferred from Field Observations
by Dieter Issler
Geosciences 2020, 10(11), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10110466 - 18 Nov 2020
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3487
Abstract
Data on the disastrous snow avalanche that occurred on 18 January 2017 at the spa hotel Rigopiano, municipality of Farindola in the Abruzzo region of central Italy, are analyzed in different ways. The main results are the following. (i) The 2017 Rigopiano avalanche [...] Read more.
Data on the disastrous snow avalanche that occurred on 18 January 2017 at the spa hotel Rigopiano, municipality of Farindola in the Abruzzo region of central Italy, are analyzed in different ways. The main results are the following. (i) The 2017 Rigopiano avalanche went beyond the run-out point predicted by the topographic-statistical α-β model with standard Norwegian calibration, while avalanches in neighboring paths appear to have run no farther than the β-point of their respective paths during the same period. (ii) The curvature and super-elevation of the trimline between 1500 and 1300 m a.s.l. indicate that the velocity of the front was around 40 m s−1. In contrast, the tail velocity of the avalanche can hardly have exceeded 25 m s−1 in the same segment. (iii) The deposits observed along all of the lower track and in the run-out zone suggest that the avalanche eroded essentially the entire snow cover, but fully entrained only a moderate amount of snow (and debris). The entrainment appears to have had a considerable decelerating effect on the flow front. (iv) Estimates of the degree to which different parts of the building were damaged is combined with information about the location of the persons in the building and their fates. This allows to refine a preliminary vulnerability curve for persons in buildings obtained from the 2015 Longyearbyen avalanche, Svalbard. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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16 pages, 3794 KiB  
Article
Application of an Inertia Dependent Flow Friction Model to Snow Avalanches: Exploration of the Model Using a Ping-Pong Ball Experiment
by Kae Tsunematsu, Fukashi Maeno and Kouichi Nishimura
Geosciences 2020, 10(11), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10110436 - 05 Nov 2020
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2247
Abstract
Snow avalanches are catastrophic phenomena because of their destructive power. Therefore, it is very important to forecast the affected area of snow avalanches using numerical simulations. In our study, we focus on applying a numerical model to snow avalanches. The inertia-dependent flow friction [...] Read more.
Snow avalanches are catastrophic phenomena because of their destructive power. Therefore, it is very important to forecast the affected area of snow avalanches using numerical simulations. In our study, we focus on applying a numerical model to snow avalanches. The inertia-dependent flow friction model, which we call the “I-dependent” model, is a promising numerical model based on granular flow experiments and includes the local inertial effect. This model was introduced in previous studies as it predicts the shape and velocity of the granular flow accurately. We numerically investigated the particle diameter effect of the I-dependent model, and found that the smaller the particle diameter is, the faster the flow front velocity becomes. The final flow shape is similar to a crescent shape when the particle diameter is small. We applied this model to the ping-pong ball flow experiment, which imitated a snow avalanche on a ski jump slope. Comparing between the experimental and simulated results, the flow shape is better reproduced when the particle diameter is small, while the numerical simulation using a real ping-pong ball diameter did not show the clear crescent shape. Moreover, the relative error analysis shows that the best fit between experimental and simulated flow front velocity occurs when the particle diameter is larger than the actual size of a ping-pong ball. We conjecture that this discrepancy is mainly caused by aerodynamic effects, which, in this case, are large due to the low density of ping-pong balls. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the granular features of ping-pong balls or snow avalanches by conducting experiments, as done in previous experimental studies. Through such efforts, it may be possible to apply this I-dependent model to snow avalanches in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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25 pages, 13582 KiB  
Article
Inverse Simulation for Extracting the Flow Characteristics of Artificial Snow Avalanches Based on Computation Fluid Dynamics
by Kenichi Oda, Katsuya Nakamura, Yoshikazu Kobayashi and Jun-ichi Suzumura
Geosciences 2020, 10(6), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10060221 - 06 Jun 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2191
Abstract
Many numerical analysis methods for predicting the motion of soil or snow avalanches may set the characteristics of the dynamic friction obtained from field tests, such as the measurement of real avalanche and model slope tests. However, the friction characteristics of the actual [...] Read more.
Many numerical analysis methods for predicting the motion of soil or snow avalanches may set the characteristics of the dynamic friction obtained from field tests, such as the measurement of real avalanche and model slope tests. However, the friction characteristics of the actual flow of objects are influenced by changes in the velocity and density of the flowing objects and are not necessarily constant. In addition, determining the shear strain rate dependence of the frictional properties at low shear strain rates is important for accurately predicting the avalanche reach distance. In this research, model tests using a rotating drum device were carried out, and an artificial snow avalanche was generated. Then, the flow velocity distribution of the flow was extracted by organizing the motion of the artificial snow avalanche flowing in the drum device using the Digital Image Correlation method. Moreover, the changing characteristics of the viscosity coefficient of the pseudo flow were estimated using an inverse simulation. For the results, it was suggested that the method of estimating flow characteristics and friction characteristics from the artificial avalanche generated by the rotating drum and the time inverse analysis proposed in this study was effective, but it is necessary to confirm the issue of the need for a similar analysis using real scale. If it is found to be applicable to real scales in the future, it will contribute to the development of this field because it will expand the range of methods for analyzing avalanches using model experiments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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17 pages, 1605 KiB  
Article
Bayesian Inference in Snow Avalanche Simulation with r.avaflow
by Jan-Thomas Fischer, Andreas Kofler, Andreas Huber, Wolfgang Fellin, Martin Mergili and Michael Oberguggenberger
Geosciences 2020, 10(5), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10050191 - 20 May 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3706
Abstract
Simulation tools for gravitational mass flows (e.g., avalanches, debris flows) are commonly used for research and applications in hazard assessment or mitigation planning. As a basis for a transparent and reproducible decision making process, associated uncertainties need to be identified in order to [...] Read more.
Simulation tools for gravitational mass flows (e.g., avalanches, debris flows) are commonly used for research and applications in hazard assessment or mitigation planning. As a basis for a transparent and reproducible decision making process, associated uncertainties need to be identified in order to quantify and eventually communicate the associated variabilities of the results. Main sources of variabilities in the simulation results are associated with parameter variations arising from observation and model uncertainties. These are connected to the measurement inaccuracies or poor process understanding and the numerical model implementation. Probabilistic approaches provide various theoretical concepts to treat these uncertainties, but their direct application is not straightforward. To provide a comprehensive tool, introducing conditional runout probabilities for the decision making process we (i) introduce a mathematical framework based on well-established Bayesian concepts, (ii) develop a work flow that couples this framework to the existing simulation tool r.avaflow, and (iii) apply the work flow to two case studies, highlighting its application potential and limitations. The presented approach allows for back, forward and predictive calculations. Back calculations are used to determine parameter distributions, identifying and mapping the model, implementation and data uncertainties. These parameter distributions serve as a base for forward and predictive calculations, embedded in the probabilistic framework. The result variability is quantified in terms of conditional probabilities with respect to the observed data and the associated simulation and data uncertainties. To communicate the result variability the conditional probabilities are visualized, allowing to identify areas with large or small result variability. The conditional probabilities are particularly interesting for predictive avalanche simulations at locations with no prior information where visualization explicitly shows the result variabilities based on parameter distributions derived through back calculations from locations with well-documented observations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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25 pages, 10103 KiB  
Article
The Historic Avalanche that Destroyed the Village of Àrreu in 1803, Catalan Pyrenees
by Pere Oller, Jan-Thomas Fischer and Elena Muntán
Geosciences 2020, 10(5), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10050169 - 07 May 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4633
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to reconstruct the avalanche which destroyed the village of Àrreu in 1803 to solve the unknowns about this historic event, and in a broader context, to improve the knowledge about these low-frequency avalanches in the Pyrenees. [...] Read more.
The purpose of the present study was to reconstruct the avalanche which destroyed the village of Àrreu in 1803 to solve the unknowns about this historic event, and in a broader context, to improve the knowledge about these low-frequency avalanches in the Pyrenees. To this end, a multidisciplinary approach was carried out by searching in historical sources and databases, reviewing aerial imagery, surveying the site for terrain and vegetation inspection, using dendrogeomorphological analysis, and interviewing local people, to finally apply SAMOS-AT computational simulations and the statistical α-β model. In the Monars avalanche path, 5 major avalanche events were identified, including the one in 1803. Most of these events were dense flow avalanches, but evidence of powder-fraction effects was deduced from the vegetation survey. Frequency analyses assigned a return period of more than 100 years to the 1803 event. Historical information suggests that a succession of avalanches is necessary for an event to reach the hamlet. Simulations indicate that a single avalanche of destructive size 5 would be sufficient to cause the catastrophe, and, at the same time, it would travel 1 km further down along the Àrreu river to the main valley (Noguera Pallaresa). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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26 pages, 21469 KiB  
Article
The Avalanche of Les Fonts d’Arinsal (Andorra): An Example of a Pure Powder, Dry Snow Avalanche
by Glòria Furdada, Aina Margalef, Laura Trapero, Marc Pons, Francesc Areny, Margaret Baró, Albert Reyes and Marta Guinau
Geosciences 2020, 10(4), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10040126 - 31 Mar 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6936
Abstract
On 8th February 1996, in the north-western part of Andorra in the Pyrenees, the Les Fonts d’Arinsal (LFd’A) pure powder avalanche was triggered, descending some 1200 m to the bottom of the Arinsal valley and continuing up the opposite slope for about 200 [...] Read more.
On 8th February 1996, in the north-western part of Andorra in the Pyrenees, the Les Fonts d’Arinsal (LFd’A) pure powder avalanche was triggered, descending some 1200 m to the bottom of the Arinsal valley and continuing up the opposite slope for about 200 m. This size 4–5 avalanche reached velocities of up to 80 ms−1, devastated 18 ha of forest, involved a minimum volume of up to 1.8 × 106 m−3 and caused major damage to eight buildings. Fortunately, no one was injured thanks to an evacuation, but 322 people lost their properties. This study describes the physical characteristics of the LFd’A avalanche path and provides data on earlier avalanches, the meteorological synoptic situation and snowpack conditions that generated the avalanche episode, the warning and preventive actions carried out, the effects and evidence of the large avalanche, and the defence system implemented afterwards. A discussion of the avalanche dynamics based on observations and damage, including the role of snow entrainment, the total lack of characteristic dense flow deposits, as well as the evidence of a two-phase flow (fluidisation and suspension), is presented. This case study is an example of a paradigmatic large, pure powder, dry-snow avalanche, which will be useful for model calibration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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28 pages, 8500 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Avalanche Development and Frontal Velocities Based on the Spectrogram of the Seismic Signals Generated at the Vallée de la Sionne Test Site
by Emma Suriñach, Elsa Leticia Flores-Márquez, Pere Roig-Lafon, Glòria Furdada and Mar Tapia
Geosciences 2020, 10(3), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10030113 - 21 Mar 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3094
Abstract
The changes in the seismic signals generated by avalanches recorded at three sites along a path at the Vallée de la Sionne (VdlS) experimental site are presented. We discuss and correlate the differences in the duration, signal amplitudes, and frequency content of the [...] Read more.
The changes in the seismic signals generated by avalanches recorded at three sites along a path at the Vallée de la Sionne (VdlS) experimental site are presented. We discuss and correlate the differences in the duration, signal amplitudes, and frequency content of the sections (Signal ONset (ON), Signal Body (SBO), and Signal TAil and Signal ENd STA-SEN) of the spectrograms with the evolution of the powder, transitional and wet snow avalanches along a path. The development of the avalanche front was quantified using the exponential function in time F (t) = K’ exp (β t) fitted to the shape of the signal ONset (SON section of the spectrogram. The speed of the avalanche front is contained in β. To this end, a new method was developed. The three seismic components were converted into one seismic component (FS), when expressing the vector in polar coordinates. We linked the theoretical function of the shape of the FS-SON section of the spectrogram to the numerical coefficients of its shape after considering the spectrogram as an image. This allowed us to obtain the coefficients K’ and β. For this purpose, the Hough Transform (HT) was applied to the image. The values of the resulting coefficients K’ and β are included in different ranges in accordance with the three types of avalanche. Curves created with these coefficients enable us to estimate the development of the different avalanche types along the path. Our results show the feasibility of classifying the type of avalanche through these coefficients. Average speeds of the avalanches approaching the recording sites were estimated. The speed values of wet and transitional avalanches are consistent with those derived from GEODAR (GEOphysical Doppler radAR) measurements, when available. The absence of agreement in the speed values obtained from seismic signals and GEODAR measurements for powder snow avalanches indicates, for this type of avalanche, a different source of the measured signal. Hence, the use of the two measuring systems proves to be complementary. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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17 pages, 15551 KiB  
Article
Simple Particle Model for Low-Density Granular Flow Interacting with Ambient Fluid
by Hirofumi Niiya, Akinori Awazu and Hiraku Nishimori
Geosciences 2020, 10(2), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10020069 - 13 Feb 2020
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3499
Abstract
To understand the time evolutions of frontal speed and shape in a low-density granular flow, we propose a simple particle model. This model solves the equation of motion for each particle and simulates the time evolution of low-density granular flow. Spherical particles constituting [...] Read more.
To understand the time evolutions of frontal speed and shape in a low-density granular flow, we propose a simple particle model. This model solves the equation of motion for each particle and simulates the time evolution of low-density granular flow. Spherical particles constituting a low-density granular flow slide on a slope at a steeper angle than the angle of repose. The particle motion is determined based on three forces: gravity as the driving force, repulsive force due to particle collision, and drag force due to the particle interaction through the ambient fluid. Two-dimensional numerical simulations of this model are conducted on the slope: the x–y plane parallel to the slope and the x–z plane perpendicular to the slope. In the x–y plane, particles aggregate at the moving front of the granular flow, and subsequently, flow instability occurs as a wavy pattern. This flow pattern is caused by the interparticle interaction arising from the drag force. Additionally, a vortex convection of particles is formed inside the aggregations. Simultaneously, particle aggregation is also found at the moving front of the granular flow in the x–z plane. The aggregation resembles a head–tail structure, where the frontal angle against the slope approaches 60 ∘ from a larger angle as time progresses. Comparing the numerical result by varying the particle size reveals that the qualitative dynamics of the granular flow are independent of particle size. Although the model is not realistic, our study presents a new particle-based approach that elucidates the dynamics of low-density granular flow. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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20 pages, 17957 KiB  
Article
Numerical Simulation of a Debris Flow on the Basis of a Two-Dimensional Continuum Body Model
by Hiroshi Takebayashi and Masaharu Fujita
Geosciences 2020, 10(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10020045 - 24 Jan 2020
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5012
Abstract
A two-dimensional debris and mud flow model that considers both laminar and turbulence flow was developed. Subsequently, the model was applied to a debris flow that occurred in Asaminami, Hiroshima, Japan in August 2014. The applicability of the model and the debris flow [...] Read more.
A two-dimensional debris and mud flow model that considers both laminar and turbulence flow was developed. Subsequently, the model was applied to a debris flow that occurred in Asaminami, Hiroshima, Japan in August 2014. The applicability of the model and the debris flow characteristics are discussed. The calculated horizontal distribution of sediment deposited in the Asaminami residential area was in good agreement with the horizontal distribution of the deposited large rocks and driftwood. This result indicates that the fine material in the downstream area was transported by water flow resulting from heavy rain that occurred after the debris flow. The scale of the initial debris flow was small; however, it increased with time, because eroded bed material and water were entrained to it. Therefore, it is important to reproduce the development process of debris flows to predict the amount of sediment produced, the deepest flow depth, the maximum flow velocity, and the inundation area. The averaged velocity of the simulated debris flow was about 9 m/s, and the velocity at the entrance to the residential area was about 8 m/s. This kind of information can be used to design sediment deposition dams. The travel time of the simulated debris flow from the upstream end of the main channel to the entrance of the residential area was 96 s. This kind of information can be used for making evacuation plans. Valley bed steps can suppress the deepest flow depth which is very important for the design of check dams; therefore, the high-resolution elevation data and fine numerical grids that reproduce step shapes are required to accurately calculate the deepest flow depth and maximum flow velocity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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20 pages, 1312 KiB  
Article
On a Continuum Model for Avalanche Flow and Its Simplified Variants
by Samvel S. Grigorian and Alexander V. Ostroumov
Geosciences 2020, 10(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10010035 - 19 Jan 2020
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2770
Abstract
Mathematical models of different degrees of complexity, describing the motion of a snow avalanche along a path with given center line and spatially varying width, are formulated and compared. The most complete model integrates the balance equations for mass and momentum over the [...] Read more.
Mathematical models of different degrees of complexity, describing the motion of a snow avalanche along a path with given center line and spatially varying width, are formulated and compared. The most complete model integrates the balance equations for mass and momentum over the cross-section and achieves closure through an entrainment function based on shock theory and a modified Voellmy bed friction law where the Coulombic contribution to the bed shear stress is limited by the shear strength of the snow cover. A simplified model results from integrating these balance equations over the (time-dependent) length of the flow and postulating weak similarity of the evolving avalanche shape. On path segments of constant inclination, it can be solved for the flow depth and speed of the front in closed form in terms of the imaginary error function. Finally, the very simplest model assumes constant flow height and length. On an inclined plane, the evolution of flow depth and velocity predicted by the simplified model are close to those from the full model without entrainment and with corresponding parameters, but the simplest model with constant flow depth predicts much higher velocity values. If the friction coefficient is varied in the full model with entrainment, there can be non-monotonous behavior due to the non-linear interplay between entrainment and the limitation on the Coulomb friction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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20 pages, 22786 KiB  
Article
Constraints on Entrainment and Deposition Models in Avalanche Simulations from High-Resolution Radar Data
by Matthias Rauter and Anselm Köhler
Geosciences 2020, 10(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10010009 - 25 Dec 2019
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4598
Abstract
Depth-integrated simulations of snow avalanches have become a central part of risk analysis and mitigation. However, the common practice of applying different model parameters to mimic different avalanches is unsatisfying. In here, we analyse this issue in terms of two differently sized avalanches [...] Read more.
Depth-integrated simulations of snow avalanches have become a central part of risk analysis and mitigation. However, the common practice of applying different model parameters to mimic different avalanches is unsatisfying. In here, we analyse this issue in terms of two differently sized avalanches from the full-scale avalanche test-site Vallée de la Sionne, Switzerland. We perform depth-integrated simulations with the toolkit OpenFOAM, simulating both events with the same set of model parameters. Simulation results are validated with high-resolution position data from the GEODAR radar. Rather than conducting extensive post-processing to match radar data to the output of the simulations, we generate synthetic flow signatures inside the flow model. The synthetic radar data can be directly compared with the GEODAR measurements. The comparison reveals weaknesses of the model, generally at the tail and specifically by overestimating the runout of the smaller event. Both issues are addressed by explicitly considering deposition processes in the depth-integrated model. The new deposition model significantly improves the simulation of the small avalanche, making it starve in the steep middle part of the slope. Furthermore, the deposition model enables more accurate simulations of deposition patterns and volumes and the simulation of avalanche series that are influenced by previous deposits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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31 pages, 5676 KiB  
Article
Inferences on Mixed Snow Avalanches from Field Observations
by Dieter Issler, Peter Gauer, Mark Schaer and Stefan Keller
Geosciences 2020, 10(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10010002 - 20 Dec 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3473
Abstract
Observations of the deposits, flow marks, and damages of three mixed-snow avalanches of widely different size were analyzed with regard to flow regimes, velocities, pressures, densities, flow depths, erosion modes, and mass balance. Three deposit types of different density and granulometry could be [...] Read more.
Observations of the deposits, flow marks, and damages of three mixed-snow avalanches of widely different size were analyzed with regard to flow regimes, velocities, pressures, densities, flow depths, erosion modes, and mass balance. Three deposit types of different density and granulometry could be clearly discerned in these avalanches. They are attributed to dense, fluidized, and suspension flow regimes, respectively. Combining observations, we estimated the density in the fluidized layer as 35–100 kg m − 3 , in good agreement with inferences from pressure measurements. Upper bounds for the suspension layer density, arising from the run-up height, velocity, and damage pattern, are about 5 kg m − 3 at the valley bottom. An approximate momentum balance of the dense layer suggests that the snow cover was eroded to considerable depth, but only partly entrained into the flow proper. The suspension layer had largely lost its erosive power at the point where it separated from the denser parts of the avalanche. Our estimates shed doubt on collisions between snow particles and aerodynamic forces at the head of the avalanche as sole mechanisms for creating and upholding the fluidized layer. We conjecture that the drag from air escaping from the snow cover as it is being compressed by the overriding avalanche could supply the missing lift force. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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20 pages, 8863 KiB  
Article
Snow Avalanche Impact Measurements at the Seehore Test Site in Aosta Valley (NW Italian Alps)
by Margherita Maggioni, Monica Barbero, Fabrizio Barpi, Mauro Borri-Brunetto, Valerio De Biagi, Michele Freppaz, Barbara Frigo, Oronzo Pallara and Bernardino Chiaia
Geosciences 2019, 9(11), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9110471 - 07 Nov 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3453
Abstract
In full-scale snow avalanche test sites, structures such as pylons, plates, or dams have been used to measure impact forces and pressures from avalanches. Impact pressures are of extreme importance when dealing with issues such as hazard mapping and the design of buildings [...] Read more.
In full-scale snow avalanche test sites, structures such as pylons, plates, or dams have been used to measure impact forces and pressures from avalanches. Impact pressures are of extreme importance when dealing with issues such as hazard mapping and the design of buildings exposed to avalanches. In this paper, we present the force measurements recorded for five selected avalanches that occurred at the Seehore test site in Aosta Valley (NW Italian Alps). The five avalanches were small to medium-sized and cover a wide range in terms of snow characteristics and flow dynamics. Our aim was to analyze the force and pressure measurements with respect to the avalanche characteristics. We measured pressures in the range of 2 to 30 kPa. Though without exhaustive measurements of the avalanche flows, we found indications of different flow regimes. For example, we could appreciate some differences in the vertical profile of the pressures recorded for wet dense avalanches and powder ones. Being aware of the fact that more complete measurements are necessary to fully describe the avalanche flows, we think that the data of the five avalanches triggered at the Seehore test site might add some useful information to the ongoing scientific discussion on avalanche flow regimes and impact pressure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

42 pages, 3876 KiB  
Review
A Review of Russian Snow Avalanche Models—From Analytical Solutions to Novel 3D Models
by Margarita Eglit, Alexander Yakubenko and Julia Zayko
Geosciences 2020, 10(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10020077 - 20 Feb 2020
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3941
Abstract
The article is a review of mathematical models of snow avalanches that have been proposed since the middle of the 20th century and are still in use. The main attention is paid to the work of researchers from the Soviet Union and Russia, [...] Read more.
The article is a review of mathematical models of snow avalanches that have been proposed since the middle of the 20th century and are still in use. The main attention is paid to the work of researchers from the Soviet Union and Russia, since many of their works were published only in Russian and are not widely available. Mathematical models of various levels of complexity for avalanches of various types—from dense to powder-snow avalanches—are discussed. Analytical solutions including formulas for the avalanche front speed are described. The results of simulations of the movement of avalanches are given that were used to create avalanche hazard maps. The last part of the article is devoted to constructing models of a new type, in which avalanches are considered as laminar or turbulent flows of non-Newtonian fluids, using the full (not depth-averaged) equations of continuum mechanics. The results of a numerical study of the effect of non-Newtonian rheology and mass entrainment on the avalanche dynamics are presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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10 pages, 281 KiB  
Perspective
Perspectives on Snow Avalanche Dynamics Research
by Kouichi Nishimura, Fabrizio Barpi and Dieter Issler
Geosciences 2021, 11(2), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11020057 - 29 Jan 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2186
Abstract
As an introduction for non-specialists to the Special Issue on snow avalanche dynamics, this paper first outlines how understanding the dynamics of snow avalanches can contribute to reducing risk for settlements and infrastructure. The main knowledge gaps in this field of research concern [...] Read more.
As an introduction for non-specialists to the Special Issue on snow avalanche dynamics, this paper first outlines how understanding the dynamics of snow avalanches can contribute to reducing risk for settlements and infrastructure. The main knowledge gaps in this field of research concern (i) the properties of the flow regimes and the transitions between them, and (ii) the dynamics of mass change due to erosion and deposition. These two aspects are intertwined and determine not only the reach of an avalanche, but also its velocity, course and impact pressure. Experimental studies described in this Special Issue comprise a wide range of scales from small rotating drums to real snow avalanches. In addition, several papers describe post-event field surveys of specific avalanches and analyze them using different methods and techniques, demonstrating how valuable qualitative insight can be gained in this way. The theoretical developments range from exploratory studies of fluid–particle interactions to a comprehensive review of half a century of avalanche flow modeling in Russia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
21 pages, 938 KiB  
Comment
Comments on “On a Continuum Model for Avalanche Flow and Its Simplified Variants” by S. S. Grigorian and A. V. Ostroumov
by Dieter Issler
Geosciences 2020, 10(3), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10030096 - 02 Mar 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2516
Abstract
This note first summarizes the history of the manuscript “On a Continuum Model for Avalanche Flow and Its Simplified Variants” by Grigorian and Ostroumov—published in this Special Issue—since the early 1990s and explains the guiding principles in editing it for publication. The changes [...] Read more.
This note first summarizes the history of the manuscript “On a Continuum Model for Avalanche Flow and Its Simplified Variants” by Grigorian and Ostroumov—published in this Special Issue—since the early 1990s and explains the guiding principles in editing it for publication. The changes are then detailed and some explanatory notes given for the benefit of readers who are not familiar with the early Russian work on snow avalanche dynamics. Finally, the editor’s personal views as to why he still considers this paper of relevance for avalanche dynamics research today are presented in brief essays on key aspects of the paper, namely the role of simple and complex models in avalanche research and mitigation work, the status and possible applications of Grigorian’s stress-limited friction law, and non-monotonicity of the dynamics of the Grigorian–Ostroumov model in the friction coefficient. A comparison of the erosion model proposed by those authors with two other models suggests to enhance it with an additional equation for the balance of tangential momentum across the shock front. A preliminary analysis indicates that continuous scouring entrainment is possible only in a restricted parameter range and that there is a second erosion regime with delayed entrainment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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