This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Recurrent translocations are well known hallmarks of many human solid tumors and hematological disorders, where patient- and breakpoint-specific information may facilitate prognostication and individualized therapy. In thyroid carcinomas, the proto-oncogenes RET and NTRK1 are often found to be activated through chromosomal rearrangements. However, many sporadic tumors and papillary thyroid carcinomas (PTCs) arising in patients with a history of exposure to elevated levels of ionizing irradiation do not carry these known abnormalities. We developed a rapid scheme to screen tumor cell metaphase spreads and identify candidate genes of tumorigenesis and neoplastic progression for subsequent functional studies. Using a series of overnight fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) experiments with pools comprised of bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clones, it now becomes possible to rapidly refine breakpoint maps and, within one week, progress from the low resolution Spectral Karyotyping (SKY) maps or Giemsa-banding (G-banding) karyotypes to fully integrated, high resolution physical maps including a list of candiate genes in the critical regions.
It is becoming increasingly clear that the pathogenesis of radiation-induced tumors is often distinctly different from that of spontaneous, non-radiation-induced tumors. Our research focuses on the physical mapping of proto-oncogenes related to tumorigenesis such as the neurothrophic growth factor receptor 1, NTRK1 (also known as trk-A) [1], the development of assays to detect chromosomal rearrangements leading to activation of oncogenes [2–5], and the mapping of translocation breakpoints in spontaneous cases of PTC as well as tumors in patients with a known history of either therapeutic or accidental exposure to ionizing radiation [6–8].
While chromosomal rearrangements activating NTRK1 are relatively rare and not a marker of exposure to ionizing radiation [9–12], the situation is different in cases with mutations involving the cadherin-family associated cell surface receptor, RET, another receptor-type tyrosine kinase (rtk) gene, found on Chromosome 10 [2–5,13–16].
Numerous studies could demonstrate a correlation between exposures to ionizing radiation and particular RET/PTC rearrangements in vivo leading to the expression of chimaeric proteins [17–22].
Fluorescence in situ hybridization is one of the most powerful tools to detect these genetic aberrations underlying the expression of chimaeric proteins [23–25]. Such proteins alter the signaling pathways in cells that have undergone neoplastic transformation [26–28].
Table 1 gives an overview of the most relevant RET/PTC rearrangements analyzed and described to date.
More recent studies have shown that the most common RET/PTC1 and RET/PTC3 rearrangements map to the known fragile site FRA10G [39] and can be created in vitro with fragile site-inducing chemicals such as aphidicolin [40].
Despite a high prevalence of mutations or rearrangements activating the rtks NTRK1 or RET, many phenotypically similar tumors do not show this abnormality. Adding a further level of complexity, in our studies of post-Chernobyl cases of PTC, only few tumors showed clonal abnormalities in 100% of metaphase spreads like the case S96T (Figure 1) [7,8,25].
We hypothesize that these normal-looking metaphase spreads carry small submicroscopic lesions also known as cryptic translocations that are missed by the conventional methods of metaphase cell analysis, i.e., G-banding, whole chromosome painting (WCP) or SKY [8,41–43].
Therefore, we feel that it is necessary to combine a variety of cytogenetic techniques to comprehensively describe all relevant aberrations. To further explore this, we utilized cell lines established from three cases of radiation-induced childhood thyroid cancer: S96T, as mentioned above, and S47T and S48T, as analyzed further in this publication.
Table 2 gives an overview over clinical details and findings from G-banding and FISH studies in these cell lines.
The RET/NTRK1 status of the cell lines used in this study has been published previously [17,34,45].
Now, if these oncogenic events arise from balanced intra- or interchromosomal rearrangements, gene copy numbers remain unchanged compared to normal diploid cells, and comparative genomic hybridization assays using either metaphase spreads [46], oligonucleotide (Nimblegen; Affymetrix) or bacterial artificial chromosome arrays [47,48] will fail to detect the abnormalities.
An additional complication in the definition of candidate genes for thyroid tumorigenesis is the great variety in levels of heterogeneity found in primary cell cultures and even established cell lines. Figure 2 illustrates this by presenting the results of our SKY analysis of case S47T, a childhood case of post-Chernobyl PTC [8]. Roughly half of the S47T metaphase spreads that we analyzed by SKY showed a balanced, reciprocal translocation t(5;7)(q23;p15). The other spreads did not show chromosome 7 material translocated to the der(5) (Figure 2, insert).
Similar challenges have been identified in previous publications analyzing PTC-associated rearrangements with and without exposure to ionizing radiation.
Thus, we have to accept that no single cytogenetic technique will reliably detect all potential aberrations found in the pathogenesis of radiation-induced (or indeed spontaneous) tumors.
In this communication we propose an algorithm utilizing a combination of cytogenetic techniques of increasing resolution to comprehensively, expeditiously and cost-effectively delineate chromosomal breakpoints in radiation-induced papillary thyroid carcinomas. By utilizing publicly available resources, our aim was the development of a replicable, targeted approach to breakpoint analysis which can be used by non-specialist laboratories worldwide.
Results and Discussion
Where significant heterogeneity is observed in cultured cell lines, such as in the case of S47T, the possibility of contamination has to be considered. However, we exclude the possibility of a contamination of these 2 cell lines (S47T and S96T) based on the fact that all 10 out of 10 G-banded metaphases showed the identical translocation (Table 2). Therefore, the fact that individual metaphase spreads prepared from S47T showed two different der(7) chromosomes in subsequent passages of S47T must be due to a deletion event that followed the reciprocal t(5;7) translocation.
Instead of immunofluorescence characterization of cell lines, we performed comprehensive cDNA hybridization experiments. This elucidated DNA changes not visible by SKY or G-banding techniques. Results from these studies have been published [7,17,45].
To develop and validate our algorithm, we focused our attention on cell line S48T.
Extensive G-banding analysis performed in the laboratories in Munich had indicated that primary cultures derived from case S48T carried multiple chromosomal abnormalities. The rearrangements were large in number and mostly unbalanced, which greatly complicated conventional karyotyping based on G-banding analysis (Figure 3) [49]. The cloning of cell line S48T has been described previously [42].
Our Spectral Karyotyping analysis (SKY), shown in Figure 3 below the G-banding results, provided some additional clues to the origin of marker chromosomes.
Cell line S48T did not display signs of rearranged chromosomes 10, but a number of marker chromosomes carrying material from either chromosome 1 or 9 caught our attention. The long arm of chromosome 1 harbors the neurotrophic growth factor receptor kinase-1 (NTRK1) gene [1], which has been reported to be aberrantly expressed in various solid tumors among them post-Chernobyl PTC [9,50].
In all S48T metaphase spreads, we found several marker chromosomes containing genetic material from either chromosome 1 or 9. These common markers, three of which are derived from chromosome 1 (Figure 4A) and four types derived from chromosome 9 (Figure 4B), are shown in Figure 4.
Protein tyrosine kinases have been implicated in tumor initiation and progression [51–53]. In gene expression studies reported elsewhere, we were able to demonstrate that cell line S48T expresses the tyrosine kinase domain of NTRK-1 [44], which is normally located on the long arm of chromosome 1, band q12-21 [1] at position 156,830,671–156,851,642 bp in the UC Santa Cruz (UCSC) genome browser. For the analysis of chromosome 1 rearrangements, we pooled three individual BAC probes, since this has resulted in more reliable FISH signals [45,54,55]. Hybridization of a combination of a biotinylated probe DNA pool that maps close to NTRK1 at chromosome 1q12-21 (clones RP11-37N10, RP11-71P2 and RP11-315I20) and a digoxigenin–labeled probe pool comprised of probes RP11-262A11, RP11-299D6 and RP11-243J18 that bind close to non-muscle tropomyosin 3 (TMP3) (UCSC position 1: 154,127,780–154,155,725), a known translocation partner of NTRK1 in solid tumor cell lines [50,56], revealed complex translocation and genome amplification in line S48T (Figure 5). Two derivative chromosomes each carried 1 copy of the ∼10 Mbp region flanked by our probe pools (arrowheads in Figure 5), while a large marker chromosome contained about 2.5 copies (arrow in Figure 5).
The results shown in Figure 5 confirm comparative genomic hybridization results that indicated genomic amplification of the proximal long arms of chromosome 1 and chromosome 9 in S48T [42].
The abnormal staining pattern of the large marker chromosome (arrows in Figure 6 A,B) prompted us to investigate the distribution of centromeric heterochromatin in this cell line. Considered a rather rare event, some of the S48T metaphase spreads hybridized with the alpha satellite DNA probe showed not just one, but two large dicentric chromosomes (Figure 7, arrows).
Our strategy to rapidly map chromosomal breakpoints in metaphase spreads is based on hybridization of increasingly smaller BAC-derived DNA probe pools. Figure 8 shows chromosome 9-specific examples: the top in (Figure 8A, B) shows the results obtained with normal metaphase chromosomes, whereas the bottom shows chromosomes in S48T.
It should be noted that BAC-FISH is a very sensitive approach to detect translocations [57].
A single BAC clone is sufficient to highlight a small translocation as shown in the example in Figure 9. Here, the BAC clone set contained one sub-telomeric clone that had been assigned by mistake to chromosome 9ptel in one of the databases. As the hybridization experiments showed, this clone maps to the telomere on the short arm of chromosome 8 instead (Figure 9).
Once a minimal breakpoint interval defined by a single BAC clone or a contig of 2–3 clones is defined, genome databases can be consulted to search for candidate tumor-related genes. For the small insertion into the t(8;9;15) chromosome in S48T this approach is illustrated in Figure 10. This screen dump from the Genome browser web page at the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC), shows a region of roughly 1.5 Mbp, which was found inserted into the marker chromosome. Clones that were used in our hybridization experiments are included in the set of FISH mapped clones shown in this Figure (i.e., RP11-92C4, RP11-91D7)
Interestingly, this region from the long arm of chromosome 9 contains the tumor growth factor (TGF) beta receptor 1 (TGFBR1) gene, which when mutated or duplicated, alters the transmission of the subcellular TGF beta signal and has been reported to cause a dominant disease phenotype [48,58]. While these findings do not support a notion that TGF beta duplications have a causal relationship to post-Chernobyl PTC, the observed gain might very well alter the cells' phenotype increasing their chances of survival and increased proliferation in the tumor microenvironment. Conversely, this metabolomic change might become a tumor's Achilles heel in efforts to devise more efficient anti-tumor therapies.
Experimental SectionCell Cultures and Preparation of Metaphase Spreads
Normal human control metaphase spreads were made from phytohemagglutinin-stimulated short-term lymphocyte cultures of blood obtained from a healthy male according to the procedure described by Harper and Saunders [59]. Acetic acid-methanol fixed lymphocytes were dropped on ethanol-cleaned slides in a CDS-5 Cytogenetic Drying Chamber (Thermatron Industries, Inc, Holland, MI) at 25 °C and 45–50% relative humidity.
The PTC cultures were established as described by Lehmann et al. and Zitzelsberger et al. [7,8]. All procedures followed protocols approved by the LBNL/UC Berkeley Institutional Review Board (IRB) Committee on protection of Human Subjects in Research regarding use of surplus surgical tissues for research. S48T lines were obtained from the tumor tissue of a 14 year old patient (7 years at time of exposure to elevated levels of radiation) undergoing surgery at the Center for Thyroid Tumors in Minsk, Belarus, following the diagnosis of Hashimoto's thyroiditis and PTC. Initial chromosome preparations were carried out after an in vitro culture of S48T cells for 8–21 days. Later, clones were isolated by limiting dilution and cultured for more than 20 passages. After G-banding with Wright's staining solution, karyotypes were recorded according to the International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature [60].
Comparative Genomic Hybridization (CGH)
Comparative genomic hybridization [46] with DNA isolated from the primary culture as well as cell lines established from case S48T was performed following standard procedures as described for a case S42T [6]. In brief, genomic DNA was isolated from the primary culture as well as from cell lines and labeled with biotin-16-dUTP (Roche Applied Science, Indianapolis, IN, USA). Normal female reference DNA was isolated from peripheral lymphocytes of a healthy donor and labeled with dig-11-dUTP. After hybridization to normal metaphase spreads of a healthy donor, labeled DNA probes were detected with streptavidin-Cy2 or avidin DCS-FITC (Vector Inc., Burlingame, CA, USA) and anti-digoxigenin-Cy3/rhodamine conjugates. Slides were counterstained with 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenyl-indole (DAPI, Calbiochem, La Jolla, CA, USA) for chromosome identification. For CGH analysis, eight or more metaphases were analyzed. Averaged profiles were generated by CGH analysis software (Vysis, Downers Grove, IL, USA) from 10–15 homologous chromosomes and interpreted according to published criteria [61,62].
Spectral Karyotyping Analysis (SKY)
Spectral Karyotyping is a molecular cytogenetic procedure to screen the entire human genome for interchromosomal translocations by hybridization of 24 different WCP probes mixtures to metaphase spreads. We applied SKY to case S48T and identified complex aberration patterns [8]. The SKY analyses followed essentially the recommendations of the manufacturer of the reagents and the SKY imaging instrumentation (Applied Spectral Imaging (ASI), Carlsbad, CA). Briefly, fixed cells on slides were pretreated with 50 μg/mL pepsin (Amresco, Solon, OH) in 0.01N HCl for 10 min at 37 °C before immersion in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) for 5 min. The slides were then incubated in paraformaldehyde (PFA) solution (1% in PBS) for 5 min, then in PBS for 5 min. After immersion in a 70%, 80%, 100% ethanol series for 3–5 min each step, the slides were air dried. Cells on slides were denatured for 5 min at 76 °C in 70% formamide (FA)(Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA)/2 × SSC and then dehydrated in 70%, 80%, and 100% ethanol (2 min per step) before air drying.
Meanwhile, the hybridization mixture (ASI) containing 24 painting probes, each specific for one human chromosome type and labeled with combinations of five different reporter molecules was denatured for 5–6 min at 76 °C, and pre-annealed/-blocked for 30–90 min at 37 °C. The pre-blocked hybridization mixture was then applied to each slide, cover slips were place on top and sealed with rubber cement. The hybridization reaction proceeded for 18-42 h at 37 °C, before the slides were washed three times for 10 min each at 43 °C in 50% FA/2 × SSC, then twice in 2 × SSC (10 min each at 43 °C). The slides were mounted with 8 μL of 4,6-diamino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) (0.1 μg/mL) in antifade solution (0.1% p-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride (Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA), 0.1× phosphate buffered saline (Invitrogen), 45 mM NaHCO3, 82% glycerol (Sigma), pH 8.0) and coverslipped. Metaphases images were acquired with the Spectracube system (ASI) and analyzed with SKYVIEW software [41,63].
Preparation of Locus-Specific DNA Probes (LSPs)
Our procedures for preparation of DNA probes from BAC/PAC clones [64,65] have been described in detail before [1,66,67]. Prior to the chromosome 9-specific FISH studies, 151 BAC clones from the Sanger Center 1 Mbp set [47] were re-arrayed on two 96-well microtiter plates (Table 3). Using information in publicly available databases (http://genome.ucsc.edu/ and http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gquery/gquery.fcgi), we selected additional BAC clones for the long arm of chromosome 1 from the Roswell Park Cancer Institute (RPCI) library RP11 [68] and for chromosome 9. A subtelomeric clone placed in position A1 on Plate 1, GS1-41L13, is not shown in Table 3. This BAC maps to the short arm of chromosome 8 (Figure 9).
Individual clones were arranged so that the entire chromosome 9-specific clone set was contained on two 96-well plates in 15 rows termed “pools” with 9-12 clones per pool in individual wells (Figure 11). This created pools “9-1” to “9-15”, each of which covers a few megabase pairs (Mbp) of DNA on chromosome 9 roughly equivalent to chromosomal bands. Pools 9-1 to 9-5 (a total of 51 clones) and pools 9-6 to 9-15 (a total of 99 clones) map to the short and long arm of chromosome 9, respectively. The pool coverage ranges from 3.85 Mbp for pool 9-8 to 12.88 Mbp for pool 9-5. When large numbers of clones were grown, overnight cultures were done individually in 2 mL of Luria broth (LB) medium in 96 deep well plates (Beckman, City of Hope, CA). Fewer individual clones were grown overnight in up to 20 mL of Luria broth (LB) medium [69] containing 12.5 μg/mL chloramphenicol (Sigma) and the DNA was extracted using an alkaline lysis protocol as described [70,71]. For preparation of DNA pools or “super-pools”, i.e., combination of two or more pools, clones were grown individually and pooled prior to DNA extraction. Quality control and quantification of the DNA was typically done by agarose gel electrophoresis and fluorometry, respectively.
All DNA probes were prepared by random priming (BioPrime kit, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) incorporating biotin-14-dCTP (part of the BioPrime kit), digoxigenin-11-dUTP (dig-11-dUTP, Roche Applied Science), fluorescein-12-dUTP (Roche Applied Science), Cy5-dUTP (Amersham, Arlington Heights, IN, USA) or Cy5.5-dCTP (Perkin Elmer, Wellesley, MA, USA) [3,72,73]. Between 0.5 μL and 3 μL of each probe along with of 4 μL human COT1™ DNA (1 mg/mL, Invitrogen) and 1 μL salmon sperm DNA (20 mg/mL, 3′-5′, Boulder, CO, USA) were precipitated with 1 μL glycogen (Roche Applied Science, 1 mg/mL) and 1/10 volume of 3 M sodium acetate in 2 volumes of 2-propanol, air dried and resuspended in 3 μL water, before 7 μL of hybridization master mix (78.6% formamide (FA), 14.3% dextran sulfate in 2.9× SSC, pH 7.0) were added. Thus, the total volume of the hybridization mixture reached 10 μL. Hybridization and detection of bound probes followed our published procedures [1–8,43]. Biotinylated and digoxigenin-labeled probes were detected with avidin-FITC (Vector, Burlingame, CA, USA; green fluorescence) and rhodamine-conjugated antibodies to digoxigenin (Roche Applied Science; red fluorescence).
In this communication, we will refer to the combination of all 150 BAC-derived DNA probes as whole chromosome painting (WCP) probe and call combinations of pools 9.1–9.5 and 9.6–9.15 “chromosome arm probes (CAP)” for chromosome 9p and 9q, respectively. To investigate chromosome 9 rearrangements in S48T with higher resolution, we labeled DNA extracted from 9p-specific clone pools and chromosome 9q-specific, adjacent pairs of pools with 5 different fluorochromes, and refer to these probes as “chromosomal rainbow probes (CRP)”.
Conclusions
In many known instances, recurrent chromosomal rearrangements are not just random events in solid tumors, but become apparent once cells carrying these abnormalities gain growth advantages over other clones. Thus, knowledge regarding the physical location of translocation breakpoints, activation of proto-oncogenes or inactivation of tumor suppressor genes may provide crucial information for a better staging of tumors and/or the definition of treatment regimens for individualized anti-tumor therapy.
Technical approaches described in this communication outline rapid and thus cost-efficient ways to analyze a patient's karyotype and reveal abnormalities within a matter of days. Utilizing resources that have been generated in the course of the International Human Genome Project, such as BAC libraries providing multi-fold coverage of the human genome, and avoiding the need for costly equipment, an average lab with basic instrumentation will now be able to perform and rapidly conclude high resolution physical mapping experiments of cancer genomes.
Figures and Tables
G-banding karyotype of the PTC cell line S96T. The arrows point at the chromosomes involved in the apparently balance reciprocal translocation t(10;22)(q11;q11).
Spectral Karyotype analysis of the PTC cell line S47T. The arrowheads point at the abnormal chromosomes derived from the t(5;7)(q23;p15). The insert shows derivative chromosomes from a metaphase spread that did not show chromosome 7 material on the der(5).
G-banding and SKY analysis of PTC cell line S48T. Spectral Karyotype analysis of PTC line S48T. The asterisks point at the abnormal chromosomes derived from the t(7;9;15).
(A) SKY classification images of abnormal metaphase chromosomes from S48T containing genetic material derived from chromosome 1. The images show from left to right a t(1;4), a t(1;6) and a der(1) chromosome; (B) SKY classification images of abnormal metaphase chromosomes from S48T containing genetic material derived from chromosome 9. The arrow points at the small insertion of chromosome 9 material into a der(8)t(8;15) chromosome that we analyzed in more detail [42].
BAC-FISH analysis of the distribution of chromosome 1-derived material in metaphase spreads from cell line S48T. The arrow points at a larger chromosome that carries an amplified region derived from the proximal long arm of chromosome 1. The arrowheads point at the two other der(1) chromosomes.
(A) The DAPI image of an interphase and a spread metaphase cell from cell line S48T; (B) Hybridization of a whole chromosome painting probe specific for chromosome 9 highlights the chromosomes that carry chromosome 9-derived material. The arrows in Figure 6 (A) and (B) point at the large t(7;9;15) marker chromosome; arrowheads point at the small insertion that we analyzed.
Pan-centromeric staining via in situ hybridization using an alpha satellite DNA con-sensus sequence probe reveals the presence of large dicentric chromosomes in this metaphase spread from cell line S48T. The chromosomes were counterstained with DAPI.
Chromosome 9-specific BAC pools for BAC-FISH. (A) Labeling of all clones with the same reporter molecule creates a whole chromosome painting (WCP) probe; (B–C) Chromosome arm probes (CAP) provide first clues to the origin of markers. The arrow in the S48T metaphase in (C) points to the small insertion; (D) Chromosomal rainbow probes for chromosome 9 (CRB9) allowed us to narrow down the origin of the inserted material to chromosome 9, pools 10–11 (right) [42].
BAC-FISH results suggest a detection-sensitivity in the order of single BAC clones or translocated genomic regions in the order of a few hundred kb. The yellow arrows point at the signal generated by a chromosome 8ptel-specific BAC clone that was cohybridized with the chromosome 9 specific BAC CAP probe sets.
Integrating FISH mapping results and genomic databases rapidly leads to the definition of candidate tumor genes. The figure shows a genomic region of about 1.5 Mbp that was found inserted into a t(8;15) chromosome.
Our BAC probe pooling strategy. Please note that the BAC clone in position A1 on Plate 1 was not used in the study of thyroid tissue described here.
BAC clones selected to map breakpoints on chromosome 9.
Pool
Region
Clone
Start (bp)
End (bp)
BAC Insert Size (bp)
9-1
9p24.3
GS1-77L23
222308
336203
113895
9-1
9p24.3
RP11-147I11
991152
1101150
109998
9-1
9p24.3
RP11-66M18
1340595
1488472
147877
9-1
9p24.3-p24.2
RP11-48M17
2136364
2296360
159996
9-1
9p24.2
RP11-320E16
2521111
2521805
694
9-1
9p24.2
RP11-509J21
3533199
3696631
163432
9-1
9p24.1
RP11-125K10
4819733
4991796
172063
9-1
9p24.1
RP11-509D8
4911574
5121406
209832
9-1
9p24.1
RP11-218I7
5993718
6146499
152781
9-1
9p24.1
RP11-106A1
6566990
6567805
815
9-1
9p24.1
RP11-283F6
7267032
7418276
151244
9-2
9p24.1
RP11-283F6
7267081
7418295
151214
9-2
9p24.1
RP11-29B9
7904520
8056890
152370
9-2
9p24.1
RP11-175E13
8398615
8557610
158995
9-2
9p23
RP11-527D15
9657611
9823754
166143
9-2
9p23
RP11-19G1
9932073
10130653
198580
9-2
9p23
RP11-23D5
11170428
11341967
171539
9-2
9p23
RP11-352F21
11389658
11588107
198449
9-2
9p23
RP11-446F13
12225005
12396287
171282
9-2
9p23
RP11-187K14
12819715
13004078
184363
9-2
9p23
RP11-413D24
13729630
13912935
183305
9-2
9p22.3
RP11-408A13
14419816
14586697
166881
9-3
9p22.3
RP11-490C5
15219945
15401987
182042
9-3
9p22.3
RP11-109M15
16141186
16325481
184295
9-3
9p22.2
RP11-132E11
16987010
17148443
161433
9-3
9p22.2
RP11-123J20
17839221
18013839
174618
9-3
9p22.1
RP11-503K16
18579957
18743091
163134
9-3
9p22.1
RP11-513M16
19310518
19506748
196230
9-3
9p21.3
RP11-15P13
20172465
20351121
178656
9-3
9p21.3
RP11-113D19
21157685
21158452
767
9-3
9p21.3
RP11-149I2
21851433
22046818
195385
9-3
9p21.3
RP11-11J1
22479595
22579721
100126
9-4
9p21.3
RP11-495L19
23376562
23557443
180881
9-4
9p21.3
RP11-33K8
24090721
24243438
152717
9-4
9p21.3
RP11-468C2
24877888
25069382
191494
9-4
9p21.2
RP11-33G16
25690187
25853227
163040
9-4
9p21.2
RP11-5P15
26681234
26681720
486
9-4
9p21.2
RP11-27J8
27417088
27590261
173173
9-4
9p21.1
RP11-20P5
28027075
28204449
177374
9-4
9p21.1
RP11-264J11
28840514
28840768
254
9-4
9p21.1
RP11-383F6
29089125
29250390
161265
9-4
9p21.1
RP11-48L13
29493271
29639053
145782
9-5
9p21.1
RP11-2G13
30199650
30364698
165048
9-5
9p13.3
RP11-573M23
34323596
34407345
83749
9-5
9p13.3
RP11-395N21
35284076
35428177
144101
9-5
9p13.3
RP11-421H8
36088495
36279930
191435
9-5
9p13.2
RP11-220I1
37065972
37242474
176502
9-5
9p13.2
RP11-113O24
38261089
38427295
166206
9-5
9p13.1
RP11-138L21
39175643
39294206
118563
9-5
9p12
RP11-38P6
42614658
42703483
88825
9-5
9p12
RP11-111G23
42933608
43076412
142804
9-6
9q13
RP11-274B18
68358409
68528389
169980
9-6
9q21.11
RP11-265B8
68778953
68779698
745
9-6
9q21.11
RP11-109D9
69487306
69676572
189266
9-6
9q21.11
RP11-141J10
70528528
70677340
148812
9-6
9q21.11
RP11-563H8
71314567
71465298
150731
9-6
9q21.12
RP11-429L21
72321408
72481088
159680
9-6
9q21.12
RP11-71A24
72848317
73017346
169029
9-6
9q21.12
RP11-401G5
73624112
73796829
172717
9-6
9q21.13
RP11-66O21
75439414
75440255
841
9-6
9q21.13
RP11-422N19
76090213
76253493
163280
9-7
9q21.13
RP11-490H9
76861448
77031282
169834
9-7
9q21.13
RP11-336N8
77969998
77970521
523
9-7
9q21.13
RP11-174K23
78534808
78716286
181478
9-7
9q21.2
RP11-362L2
79355248
79356032
784
9-7
9q21.2
RP11-280K20
80042734
80187829
145095
9-7
9q21.2
RP11-384P5
80182461
80364063
181602
9-7
9q21.2-q21.3
1 RP11-66D1
80991481
81138354
146873
9-7
9q21.31
RP11-432M2
82008792
82208346
199554
9-7
9q21.31
RP11-541F16
82662629
82822736
160107
9-7
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The skillful assistance of guests and staff of the Weier laboratory, LBNL, is gratefully acknowledged. This work was supported in parts by a grant from the Leonard Rosenman Fund (BOB) and NIH grants HD45736, CA123370, CA132815 and CA136685 (HUW) carried out at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory under contract DE-AC02-05CH11231. JLF was supported in part by NIH grant HD41425. We would like to thank the Mapping Core and Map Finishing groups of the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute for initial clone supply and verification [47,74].
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