Quality of Roof-Harvested Rainwater as a Function of Environmental and Air Pollution Factors in a Coastal Mediterranean City (Haifa, Israel)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Analysis Methods
2.2.1. Physicochemical Parameters
2.2.2. Microbial Quality
2.2.3. Heavy Metals
2.2.4. Air Quality
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Roof Runoff Quality
3.2. Factors Affecting Roof Harvested Rainwater Quality
3.2.1. Physicochemical Parameters
3.2.2. Microbial Quality
3.2.3. Metals
3.3. Overall Effects of the Explanatory Factors
4. Summary and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Potential Explanatory Factors | Units | |
---|---|---|
Environmental factors | Rain depth (RD) | mm/event |
Number of days from the beginning of the rainy season 1 (DN) | days | |
Length of dry period between consecutive rain events (ADP) | days | |
Roof type: concrete, tile and isolated steel sheets (RT) | - | |
Air pollution factors 2 | PM2.5 | µg/m3 |
PM2.5–10 | µg/m3 | |
SO2 | ppb | |
NO | ppb | |
NO2 | ppb | |
O3 | ppb | |
WDD 3 | deg | |
WDS | m/s |
Parameter | Units | Avg. | Std | Median | Range | 25% | 75% | N | IPWQR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rainwater depth | mm/event | 15.1 | 14.9 | 9.9 | 57–0.2 | 3.9 | 20.9 | 158 | NR |
Antecedent dry weather period | d | 4.97 | 7.52 | 1.0 | 0–40 | 0 | 6.75 | 156 | NR |
Turbidity | NTU | 26.0 | 32.6 | 12.7 | 143–0.7 | 5.83 | 30.5 | 147 | 1.0 |
EC | µS/cm | 91.1 | 85.3 | 77.1 | 660–0.19 | 51.04 | 106.1 | 147 | |
pH | mg/L | 7.01 | 0.78 | 6.9 | 10.7–5.5 | 6.58 | 7.19 | 149 | 6.5–9.5 |
TSS | mg/L | 29.2 | 47.0 | 13.4 | 279–0 | 2.9 | 33.4 | 153 | |
VSS | mg/L | 20.0 | 39.2 | 5.4 | 244–0 | 0 | 20.4 | 153 | |
TOC | mg/L | 4.75 | 3.14 | 4.19 | 14.4–0.7 | 2.28 | 6.89 | 130 | |
COD | mg/L | 20.1 | 43.3 | BDL | BDL-204 | BDL | 16.4 | 109 | |
OD254 | 1/cm | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.006 | 0.06–0 | 0.002 | 0.014 | 151 | |
TN | mg/L | 1.25 | 1.05 | 0.96 | 5.34–0.173 | 0.76 | 1.16 | 101 | 15.8 1 |
Alkalinity | mg/L 2 | 75.2 | 87.7 | 48.0 | 0.21–428 | 18.46 | 91.9 | 114 | |
Hardness | mg/L 2 | 28.1 | 17.1 | 24.9 | 98.7–3.7 | 14.7 | 36.18 | 128 | |
FC | cfu/100 mL | 4.90 | 9.36 | 1.0 | BDL-44.0 | BDL | 4 | 51 | BDL(TC) 3 |
Al | mg/L | 0.021 | 0.02 | 0.015 | 0.13–0.002 | 0.009 | 0.026 | 131 | 0.2 |
Ba | mg/L | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.014 | 0.36–0.002 | 0.008 | 0.037 | 128 | 1.0 |
Ca | mg/L | 9.80 | 8.06 | 7.9 | 55.9–1.014 | 4.3 | 12.6 | 130 | |
Cd | mg/L | 0.018 | 0.024 | 0.012 | 00.0026–0.14 | 0.007 | 0.018 | 130 | 0.005 |
Fe | mg/L | 0.014 | 0.01 | 0.013 | 0.002–0.07 | 0.007 | 0.02 | 131 | 1.0 |
K | mg/L | 1.42 | 2.15 | 0.76 | 15.2–0.07 | 0.4 | 1.4 | 117 | |
Mg | mg/L | 1.40 | 1.25 | 1.12 | 9.94–0.205 | 0.74 | 1.57 | 130 | |
Na | mg/L | 6.53 | 5.79 | 4.5 | 29.3–1.33 | 2.8 | 7.5 | 122 | |
Si | mg/L | 0.96 | 1.23 | 0.29 | 6.04–0.002 | 0.14 | 1.62 | 132 | |
Sr | mg/L | 0.044 | 0.05 | 0.031 | 0.28–0.006 | 0.02 | 0.044 | 44 | |
Zn | mg/L | 0.17 | 0.203 | 0.12 | 1.29–0.001 | 0.03 | 0.22 | 130 | 5.0 |
Parameter | Intercept | RD | DN | ADP | Roof Type ** | PM2.5 * (µg/m3) | PM2.5–10 * (µg/m3) | O3 * (ppb) | SO2 * (ppb) | NO * (ppb) | NO2 * (ppb) | WDD * (deg.) | WDS * (m/s) | NEV | R2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FC | 76.5 | −0.47 | −1.52 | −1.31 t | −0.45 | 0.49 | 1.13 | 7.58 | −1.83 | −0.29 | −7.83 | 10 | 0.87 | ||
Sr | 0.397 | −0.002 | −0.001 | −0.005 | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.144 | 0.066 | −0.009 | 0.0023 | −0.002 | 10 | 0.86 | ||
Si | 0.4599 | −0.009 | 0.0112 | −1.108 s | −0.0105 | 0.0092 | 0.0186 | 0.2195 | 0.0387 | 8 | 0.78 | ||||
Alkalinity | −248 | −0.69 | −5.55 | −28.9 s | 5.18 | −2.65 | 12.2 | −18.4 | 6.02 | 0.32 | −24.8 | 10 | 0.70 | ||
TN | −0.025 | −0.009 | −0.01 | −0.036 | −0.22 c | 0.099 | −0.056 | 0.103 | −0.15 | 8 | 0.63 | ||||
TOC | 16.6 | 0.248 | −0.57 c | −0.095 | 0.07 | −0.16 | 1.23 | −0.55 | −0.009 | −0.48 | 9 | 0.49 | |||
OD254 | 0.017 | 1.0e-4 | 3.0e-4 | −0.002 c | 0.00025 | 0.0020 | −5.0e-4 | −3.53e-5 | −1.5e-3 | 8 | 0.47 | ||||
Na | −0.848 | −0.076 | 0.0532 | 0.065 | 0.2441 | 3.012 | −2.471 | 0.1123 | 0.145 | 0.123 | 9 | 0.47 | |||
Zn | 0.123 | 0.0068 | 0.164 s | 0.039 | −0.0194 | −0.0067 | 5 | 0.47 | |||||||
EC | −130 | −0.55 | −6.9 s | 0.70 | −0.60 | 2.8 | 4.4 | 8.6 | 7 | 0.44 | |||||
Ca | 8.287 | −0.085 | 0.367 | −3.421 s | 0.089 | 4 | 0.44 | ||||||||
Turb. | −19.6 | 0.21 | 0.71 | −0.32 | 0.83 | 4 | 0.43 | ||||||||
Hardness | 9.54 | −7.07 | 17.7 | −8.66 s | 17.54 | 7.67 | 16.95 | −14.8 | 7 | 0.42 | |||||
Al | 0.0035 | 0.0002 | 0.0004 | 0.0075 | −0.0008 | 0.0007 | 0.0043 | 0.0098 | −0.0009 | 8 | 0.42 | ||||
COD | −129 | 1.87 | −7.49 c | −0.26 | 2.57 | −9.76 | 6.32 | 9.62 | 7 | 0.38 | |||||
pH | 4.88 | 0.0034 | 0.486 c | 0.018 | 0.086 | 0.187 | 5 | 0.34 | |||||||
Fe | 0.0011 | −0.0014 c | 0.0002 | 0.0012 | 0.0001 | 4 | 0.30 | ||||||||
K | −1.08 | 0.4644 c | 0.0158 | 0.068 | 0.11 | −0.093 | −0.052 | 6 | 0.29 | ||||||
Mg | −1.041 | 0.006 | 0.0117 | 0.0348 | 0.543 | −0.432 | 5 | 0.29 | |||||||
Ba | 0.065 | −0.021 c | 1 | 0.28 | |||||||||||
Cd | 0.0462 | 0.0002 | 0.0042 | −0.0026 | 3 | 0.28 | |||||||||
TSS | −20.9 | 0.055 | 0.64 | 1.61 | −8.74 | 4 | 0.24 | ||||||||
VSS | −3.48 | 0.52 | 0.82 | −5.48 | 3 | 0.20 |
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Friedler, E.; Gilboa, Y.; Muklada, H. Quality of Roof-Harvested Rainwater as a Function of Environmental and Air Pollution Factors in a Coastal Mediterranean City (Haifa, Israel). Water 2017, 9, 896. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9110896
Friedler E, Gilboa Y, Muklada H. Quality of Roof-Harvested Rainwater as a Function of Environmental and Air Pollution Factors in a Coastal Mediterranean City (Haifa, Israel). Water. 2017; 9(11):896. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9110896
Chicago/Turabian StyleFriedler, Eran, Yael Gilboa, and Hussein Muklada. 2017. "Quality of Roof-Harvested Rainwater as a Function of Environmental and Air Pollution Factors in a Coastal Mediterranean City (Haifa, Israel)" Water 9, no. 11: 896. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9110896