Introduction to Photonics: Principles and the Most Recent Applications of Microstructures
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Applications of Photonics
- Telecommunication: optical down-converter to microwave, and optical fiber communications.
- Medical applications: laser surgery, poor eyesight correction, tattoo removal and surgical endoscopy.
- Manufacturing processes in industries: involves the use of laser in welding, cutting, drilling, and many surface modification techniques.
- Building and construction: smart structures, laser range finding, and laser leveling.
- Space exploration and aviation: including astronomical telescopes.
- Military operations: command and control, IR sensors, navigation, mine laying, hunt and salvage, and discovery.
- Metrology: range finding, frequency and time measurements.
- Photonic computing: printed circuit boards, and quantum computing.
- Micro-photonics and nanophotonics.
3. Advances in Photonics
4. Structure, Types, and Applications of Optical Fibers
5. Classification of Optical Fiber Sensors
5.1. Intrinsic Optical Fiber Sensors
5.2. Extrinsic Optical Fiber Sensors
6. Fiber Bragg Grating and Applications
7. Waveguides and Applications
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Cavin, S.; Wang, X.; Zellweger, M.; Gonzalez, M.; Bensimon, M.; Wagnières, G.; Krueger, T.; Ris, H.; Gronchi, F.; Perentes, J.Y. Interstitial fluid pressure: A novel biomarker to monitor photo-induced drug uptake in tumor and normal tissues. Lasers Surg. Med. 2017, 49, 773–780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mignon, C.; Tobin, D.J.; Zeitouny, M.; Uzunbajakava, N.E. Shedding light on the variability of optical skin properties: Finding a path towards more accurate prediction of light propagation in human cutaneous compartments. Biomed. Opt. Express 2018, 9, 852–872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sun, Q.; He, Y.; Liu, K.; Fan, S.; Parrott, E.P.J.; Pickwell-MacPherson, E. Recent advances in terahertz technology for biomedical applications. Quant. Imaging Med. Surg. 2017, 7, 345–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Gorin, A.; Jaouad, A.; Grondin, E.; Aimez, V.; Charette, P. Fabrication of silicon nitride waveguides for visible-light using PECVD: A study of the effect of plasma frequency on optical properties. Opt. Express 2008, 16, 13509–13516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zheludev, N. The life and times of the LED—A 100-year history. Nat. Photonics 2007, 1, 189–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gordon, R. Sensors: Single-ion detection. Nat. Photonics 2016, 10, 697–698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hochberg, M.; Baehr-Jones, T. Towards fabless silicon photonics. Nat. Photonics 2010, 4, 492–494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malka, D.; Peled, A. Power splitting of 1 × 16 in multicore photonic crystal fibers. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2017, 417, 34–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dersch, R.; Steinhart, M.; Boudriot, U.; Greiner, A.; Wendorff, J.H. Nanoprocessing of polymers: Applications in medicine, sensors, catalysis, photonics. Polym. Adv. Technol. 2005, 16, 276–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weil, T.; Vosch, T.; Hofkens, J.; Peneva, K.; Müllen, K. The rylene colorant family—tailored nanoemitters for photonics research and applications. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2010, 49, 9068–9093. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jariwala, D.; Marks, T.J.; Hersam, M.C. Mixed-dimensional van der Waals heterostructures. Nat. Mater. 2017, 16, 170–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hedberg, T.; Feeney, A.B.; Helu, M.; Camelio, J.A. Toward a Lifecycle Information Framework and Technology in Manufacturing. J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng. 2017, 17, 021010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sundaravadivel, P.; Kougianos, E.; Mohanty, S.P.; Ganapathiraju, M.K. Everything You Wanted to Know about Smart Health Care: Evaluating the Different Technologies and Components of the Internet of Things for Better Health. IEEE Consum. Electron. Mag. 2018, 7, 18–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, T.; Shevchenko, N.A.; Lavery, D.; Semrau, D.; Liga, G.; Alvarado, A.; Killey, R.I.; Bayvel, P. Modulation format dependence of digital nonlinearity compensation performance in optical fibre communication systems. Opt. Express 2017, 25, 3311–3326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Farsaei, A.; Wang, Y.; Molavi, R.; Jayatilleka, H.; Caverley, M.; Beikahmadi, M.; Shirazi, A.H.M.; Jaeger, N.; Chrostowski, L.; Mirabbasi, S. A review of wireless-photonic systems: Design methodologies and topologies, constraints, challenges, and innovations in electronics and photonics. Opt. Commun. 2016, 373, 16–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zou, X.; Lu, B.; Pan, W.; Yan, L.; Stöhr, A.; Yao, J. Photonics for microwave measurements. Laser Photonics Rev. 2016, 10, 711–734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Marpaung, D.; Roeloffzen, C.; Heideman, R.; Leinse, A.; Sales, S.; Capmany, J. Integrated microwave photonics. Laser Photonics Rev. 2013, 7, 506–538. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Capmany, J.; Mora, J.; Pastor, D.; Ortega, B.; Sales, S. Microwave photonic signal processing. J. Lightwave Technol. 2013, 31, 571–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aulakh, S.K. Application of microwave photonics in electronic warfare. IJCST 2013, 4, 53–58. [Google Scholar]
- Liu, L.; Feng, F.; Hu, Q.; Paau, M.C.; Liu, Y.; Chen, Z.; Bai, Y.; Guo, F.; Choi, M.M.F. Capillary electrophoretic study of green fluorescent hollow carbon nanoparticles. Electrophoresis 2015, 36, 2110–2119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ma, R.; Oulton, R.F.; Sorger, V.J.; Zhang, X. Plasmon lasers: Coherent light source at molecular scales. Laser Photonics Rev. 2013, 7, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, B.; Yang, J.; Hu, C.; Wang, S.; Wen, Q.; Zhang, J. Plasmonic polarization nano-splitter based on asymmetric optical slot antenna pairs. Opt. Lett. 2016, 41, 4931–4934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Park, W.; Rhie, J.; Kim, N.Y.; Hong, S.; Kim, D. Sub-10 nm feature chromium photomasks for contact lithography patterning of square metal ring arrays. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 23823. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- El-Rabiaey, M.A.; Areed, N.F.F.; Obayya, S.S.A. Novel plasmonic data storage based on nematic liquid crystal layers. J. Lightwave Technol. 2016, 34, 3726–3732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stipe, B.C.; Strand, T.C.; Poon, C.C.; Balamane, H.; Boone, T.D.; Katine, J.A.; Li, J.; Rawat, V.; Nemoto, H.; Hirotsune, A.; et al. Magnetic recording at 1.5 Pb m-2 using an integrated plasmonic antenna. Nat. Photonics 2010, 4, 484–488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Petersen, M.R.; Yossef, M.; Chen, A. Gap between Code Requirements and Current State of Research on Safety Performance of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer for Nonstructural Building Components. Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr. 2017, 22, 04017005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Knight, J.C.; Birks, T.A.; Russell, P.S.J.; Atkin, D.M. All-silica single-mode optical fiber with photonic crystal cladding. Opt. Lett. 1996, 21, 1547–1549. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Seddon, A.B.; Tang, Z.; Furniss, D.; Sujecki, S.; Benson, T.M. Progress in rare-earth-doped mid-infrared fiber lasers. Opt. Express 2010, 18, 26704–26719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Borshchevskaia, N.A.; Katamadze, K.G.; Kulik, S.P.; Klyamkin, S.N.; Chuvikov, S.V.; Sysolyatin, A.A.; Tsvetkov, S.V.; Fedorov, M.V. Luminescence in germania–silica fibers in a 1–2 μm region. Opt. Lett. 2017, 42, 2874–2877. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hegedűs, G.; Sarkadi, T.; Czigány, T. Analysis of the Light Transmission Ability of Reinforcing Glass Fibers Used in Polymer Composites. Materials 2017, 10, 637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ertman, S.; Lesiak, P.; Woliński, T.R. Optofluidic photonic crystal fiber-based sensors. J. Lightwave Technol. 2017, 35, 3399–3405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singh, E.; Kim, K.S.; Yeom, G.Y.; Nalwa, H.S. Atomically thin-layered molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) for bulk-heterojunction solar cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2017, 9, 3223–3245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Qiao, P.; Yang, W.; Chang-Hasnain, C.J. Recent advances in high-contrast metastructures, metasurfaces, and photonic crystals. Adv. Opt. Photonics 2018, 10, 180–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tao, G.; Ebendorff-Heidepriem, H.; Stolyarov, A.M.; Danto, S.; Badding, J.V.; Fink, Y.; Ballato, J.; Abouraddy, A.F. Infrared fibers. Adv. Opt. Photonics 2015, 7, 379–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peacock, A.C.; Sparks, J.R.; Healy, N. Semiconductor optical fibres: Progress and opportunities. Laser Photonics Rev. 2014, 8, 53–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Z.; Guo, C.; Jiang, W. Large mode area OmniGuide fiber with superconductor-dielectric periodic multilayers cladding. Opt. Int. J. Light Electron Opt. 2014, 125, 6789–6792. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hasan, M.I.; Akhmediev, N.; Chang, W. Mid-infrared supercontinuum generation in supercritical xenon-filled hollow-core negative curvature fibers. Opt. Lett. 2016, 41, 5122–5125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bellanca, G.; Riesen, N.; Argyros, A.; Leon-Saval, S.G.; Lwin, R.; Parini, A.; Love, J.D.; Bassi, P. Holey fiber mode-selective couplers. Opt. Express 2015, 23, 18888–18896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hu, K.; Kabakova, I.V.; Büttner, T.F.; Lefrancois, S.; Hudson, D.D.; He, S.; Eggleton, B.J. Low-threshold Brillouin laser at 2 μm based on suspended-core chalcogenide fiber. Opt. Lett. 2014, 39, 4651–4654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kim, R.; Park, C.H.; Lee, A.; Moon, J.H. Development of the noncontact temperature sensor using the infrared optical fiber coated with antifog solution. Sci. Technol. Nucl. Install. 2015, 2015, 718592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mishra, V. 16 Medical Applications of Fiber-Optic Sensors. Opt. Fiber Sens. Adv. Tech. Appl. 2015, 36, 455. [Google Scholar]
- Pospíšilová, M.; Kuncová, G.; Trögl, J. Fiber-optic chemical sensors and fiber-optic bio-sensors. Sensors 2015, 15, 25208–25259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, Y.; Zhang, M.; Zhang, J.; Wang, Y. Single-longitudinal-mode triple-ring Brillouin fiber laser with a saturable absorber ring resonator. J. Lightwave Technol. 2017, 35, 1744–1749. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Axelrod, D.; Burghardt, T.P.; Thompson, N.L. Total internal reflection fluorescence. Annual review of biophysics and bioengineering. Ann. Rev. Biophys. Bioeng. 1984, 13, 247–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sönnichsen, C.; Geier, S.; Hecker, N.E.; von Plessen, G.; Feldmann, J.; Ditlbacher, H.; Lamprecht, B.; Krenn, J.R.; Aussenegg, F.R.; Chan, V.Z.; et al. Spectroscopy of single metallic nanoparticles using total internal reflection microscopy. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2000, 77, 2949–2951. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mitschke, F. Fiber Optics: Physics and Technology; Springer Science & Business Media: New York, NY, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Abedin, K.S.; Yan, M.F.; Taunay, T.F.; Zhu, B.; Monberg, E.M.; DiGiovanni, D.J. State-of-the-art multicore fiber amplifiers for space division multiplexing. Opt. Fiber Technol. 2017, 35, 64–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Predehl, K.; Grosche, G.; Raupach, S.M.F.; Droste, S.; Terra, O.; Alnis, J.; Legero, T.; Hansch, T.W.; Udem, T.; Holzwarth, R.; et al. A 920-kilometer optical fiber link for frequency metrology at the 19th decimal place. Science 2012, 336, 441–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, Z.; Heidt, A.M.; Daniel, J.M.O.; Jung, Y.; Alam, S.U.; Richardson, D.J. Thulium-doped fiber amplifier for optical communications at 2 µm. Opt. Express 2013, 21, 9289–9297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Marhic, M.E.; Andrekson, P.A.; Petropoulos, P.; Radic, S.; Peucheret, C.; Jazayerifar, M. Fiber optical parametric amplifiers in optical communication systems. Laser Photonics Rev. 2015, 9, 50–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Taffoni, F.; Formica, D.; Saccomandi, P.; Pino, G.; Schena, E. Optical fiber-based MR-compatible sensors for medical applications: An overview. Sensors 2013, 13, 14105–14120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Choi, Y.; Yoon, C.; Kim, M.; Yang, T.D.; Fang-Yen, C.; Dasari, R.R.; Lee, K.J.; Choi, W. Scanner-free and wide-field endoscopic imaging by using a single multimode optical fiber. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2012, 109, 203901. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Woyessa, G.; Fasano, A.; Markos, C.; Stefani, A.; Rasmussen, H.K.; Bang, O. Zeonex microstructured polymer optical fiber: Fabrication friendly fibers for high temperature and humidity insensitive Bragg grating sensing. Opt. Mater. Express 2017, 7, 286–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gu, F.; Xie, F.; Lin, X.; Linghu, S.; Fang, W.; Zeng, H.; Tong, L.; Zhuang, S. Single whispering-gallery mode lasing in polymer bottle microresonators via spatial pump engineering. Light Sci. Appl. 2017, 6, e17061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kostovski, G.; Stoddart, P.R.; Mitchell, A. The Optical Fiber Tip: An Inherently Light-Coupled Microscopic Platform for Micro-and Nanotechnologies. Adv. Mater. 2014, 26, 3798–3820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lepinay, S.; Staff, A.; Ianoul, A.; Albert, J. Improved detection limits of protein optical fiber biosensors coated with gold nanoparticles. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2014, 52, 337–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lee, B. Review of the present status of optical fiber sensors. Opt. Fiber Technol. 2003, 9, 57–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perrotton, C.; Westerwaal, R.J.; Javahiraly, N.; Slaman, M.; Schreuders, H.; Dam, B.; Meyrueis, P. A reliable, sensitive and fast optical fiber hydrogen sensor based on surface plasmon resonance. Opt. Express 2013, 21, 382–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zeng, W.; Shu, L.; Li, Q.; Chen, S.; Wang, F.; Tao, X. Fiber-based wearable electronics: A review of materials, fabrication, devices, and applications. Adv. Mater. 2014, 26, 5310–5336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, H.; Healy, N.; Shen, L.; Huang, C.C.; Aspiotis, N.; Hewak, D.W.; Peacock, A.C. Graphene-based fiber polarizer with PVB-enhanced light interaction. J. Lightwave Technol. 2016, 34, 3563–3567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grattan, K.; Ning, Y. Optical Fiber Sensor Technology; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 1998; pp. 1–35. [Google Scholar]
- Medlock, R.S. Fibre optic intensity modulation sensors. Appl. Sci. 1987, 132, 123–124. [Google Scholar]
- Spooncer, R. Fibre optics in instrumentation. Handb. Meas. Sci. 1992, 3, 1691–1720. [Google Scholar]
- Grattan, K.T.V. Fibre optic sensors—the way forward, measurement. J. Int. Meas. Confed. 1987, 5, 122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grattan, K.T.V. New Developments in Sensor Technology—Fibre and Electro-Optics. Meas. Control 1989, 22, 165–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barozzi, M.; Manicardi, A.; Vannucci, A.; Candiani, A.; Sozzi, M.; Konstantaki, M.; Pissadakis, S.; Corradini, R.; Selleri, S.; Cucinotta, A. Optical fiber sensors for label-free DNA detection. J. Lightwave Technol. 2017, 35, 3461–3472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ferreira, M.F.S.; Castro-Camus, E.; Ottaway, D.J.; López-Higuera, J.M.; Feng, X.; Jin, W.; Jeong, Y.; Picqué, N.; Tong, L.; Reinhard, B.M.; et al. Roadmap on optical sensors. J. Opt. 2017, 19, 083001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Guan, B.; Jin, L.; Cheng, L.; Liang, Y. Acoustic and ultrasonic detection with radio-frequency encoded fiber laser sensors. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 2017, 23, 302–313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, D.; Chen, X.; Zhou, K.; Zhang, L.; Bennion, I.; MacPherson, W.N.; Barton, J.S.; Jones, J.D.C. Bend sensors with direction recognition based on long-period gratings written in D-shaped fiber. Appl. Opt. 2004, 43, 5425–5428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhao, D.; Zhou, K.; Chen, X.; Zhang, L.; Bennion, I.; Flockhart, G.; MacPherson, W.N.; Barton, J.S.; Jones, J.D.C. Implementation of vectorial bend sensors using long-period gratings UV-inscribed in special shape fibres. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2004, 15, 1647–1650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Shu, X.; Zhao, D.; Zhang, L.; Bennion, I. Use of dual-grating sensors formed by different types of fiber Bragg gratings for simultaneous temperature and strain measurements. Appl. Opt. 2004, 43, 2006–2012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Rapp, M.; Ley, C.J.; Hansson, K.; Sjöström, L. Postoperative computed tomography and low-field magnetic resonance imaging findings in dogs with degenerative lumbosacral stenosis treated by dorsal laminectomy. Vet. Comp. Orthop. Traumatol. 2017, 30, 143–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yoon, S.; Ye, W.; Heidemann, J.; Littlefield, B.; Shahabi, C. SWATS: Wireless sensor networks for steamflood and waterflood pipeline monitoring. IEEE Netw. 2011, 25, 50–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mishra, C.; Palai, G. Temperature and pressure effect on GaN waveguide at 428.71 terahertz frequency for sensing application. Opt. Int. J. Light Electron Opt. 2015, 126, 4685–4687. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trpkovski, S.; Wade, S.A.; Baxter, G.W.; Collins, S.F. Dual temperature and strain sensor using a combined fiber Bragg grating and fluorescence intensity ratio technique in Er3+-doped fiber. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2003, 74, 2880–2885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schultz, J.H. Protection of superconducting magnets. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 2002, 12, 1390–1395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Soto, M.A.; Angulo-Vinuesa, X.; Martin-Lopez, S.; Chin, S.; Ania-Castanon, J.D.; Corredera, P.; Rochat, E.; Gonzalez-Herraez, M.; Thevenaz, L. Extending the real remoteness of long-range Brillouin optical time-domain fiber analyzers. J. Lightwave Technol. 2014, 32, 152–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kramer, A.; Over, D.; Stoller, P.; Paul, T.A. Fiber-coupled LED gas sensor and its application to online monitoring of ecoefficient dielectric insulation gases in high-voltage circuit breakers. Appl. Opt. 2017, 56, 4505–4512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Oromiehie, E.; Prusty, B.G.; Compston, P.; Rajan, G. In-situ simultaneous measurement of strain and temperature in automated fiber placement (AFP) using optical fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors. Adv. Manuf. Polym. Compos. Sci. 2017, 3, 52–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, S.; Homa, D.; Pickrell, G.; Wang, A. Fiber Bragg grating fabricated in micro-single-crystal sapphire fiber. Opt. Lett. 2018, 43, 62–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhao, J.; Cao, S.; Liao, C.; Wang, Y.; Wang, G.; Xu, X.; Fu, C.; Xu, G.; Lian, J.; Wang, Y. Surface plasmon resonance refractive sensor based on silver-coated side-polished fiber. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2016, 230, 206–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, G. Wavelength-switchable passively mode-locked fiber laser with mechanically exfoliated molybdenum ditelluride on side-polished fiber. Opt. Laser Technol. 2017, 96, 307–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roland, U.; Renschen, C.P.; Lippik, D.; Stallmach, F.; Holzer, F. A new fiber optical thermometer and its application for process control in strong electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields. Sens. Lett. 2003, 1, 93–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hill, K.O.; Malo, B.; Bilodeau, F.; Johnson, D.C.; Albert, J. Bragg gratings fabricated in monomode photosensitive optical fiber by UV exposure through a phase mask. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1993, 62, 1035–1037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meltz, G.; Morey, W.W.; Glenn, W.H. Formation of Bragg gratings in optical fibers by a transverse holographic method. Opt. Lett. 1989, 14, 823–825. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pospori, A.; Marques, C.A.F.; Bang, O.; Webb, D.J.; André, P. Polymer optical fiber Bragg grating inscription with a single UV laser pulse. Opt. Express 2017, 25, 9028–9038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, A.P.; Gao, S.; Yan, G.; Bai, Y. Advances in optical fiber Bragg grating sensor technologies. Photonic Sens. 2012, 2, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Tanaka, Y.; Miyazawa, H. Multipoint Fiber Bragg Grating Sensing Using Two-Photon Absorption Process in Silicon Avalanche Photodiode. J. Lightwave Technol. 2018, 36, 1032–1038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, T.; Shi, C.; Tan, Y.; Zhou, Z. Fiber Bragg grating sensing-based online torque detection on coupled bending and torsional vibration of rotating shaft. IEEE Sens. J. 2017, 17, 1999–2007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheng, L.K.; Schiferli, W.; Nieuwland, R.A.; Franzen, A.; den Boer, J.J.; Jansen, T.H. Development of a FBG Vortex Flow Sensor for High-Temperature Applications. In Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Optical Fibre Sensors (OFS21), Ottawa, ON, Canada, 15–19 May 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, F.; Zhou, Z.; Liu, Q.; Xu, W. An intelligent service matching method for mechanical equipment condition monitoring using the fibre Bragg grating sensor network. Enterp. Inf. Syst. 2017, 11, 284–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molimard, J.; Vacher, S.; Vautrin, A. Monitoring LCM process by FBG sensor under birefringence. Strain 2011, 47, 364–373. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caloz, C.; Itoh, T. Electromagnetic Metamaterials: Transmission Line Theory and Microwave Applications; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Lin, P.T.; Singh, V.; Kimerling, L.; Agarwal, A.M. Planar silicon nitride mid-infrared devices. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2013, 102, 251121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Henry, M.; Free, C.E.; Izqueirdo, B.S.; Batchelor, J.; Young, P. Millimeter wave substrate integrated waveguide antennas: Design and fabrication analysis. IEEE Trans. Adv. Packag. 2009, 32, 93–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Monat, C.; Domachuk, P.; Eggleton, B.J. Integrated optofluidics: A new river of light. Nat. Photonics 2007, 1, 106–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Psaltis, D.; Quake, S.R.; Yang, C. Developing optofluidic technology through the fusion of microfluidics and optics. Nature 2006, 442, 381–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Fan, X.; White, I.M. Optofluidic microsystems for chemical and biological analysis. Nat. Photonics 2011, 5, 591–597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Schmidt, H.; Hawkins, A.R. The photonic integration of non-solid media using optofluidics. Nat. Photonics 2011, 5, 598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malik, A.; Muneeb, M.; Pathak, S.; Shimura, Y.; van Campenhout, J.; Loo, R.; Roelkens, G. Germanium-on-silicon mid-infrared arrayed waveguide grating multiplexers. IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 2013, 25, 1805–1808. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bhardwaj, S.; Mittholiya, K.; Bhatnagar, A.; Bernard, R.; Dharmadhikari, J.A.; Mathur, D.; Dharmadhikari, A.K. Inscription of type I and depressed cladding waveguides in lithium niobate using a femtosecond laser. Appl. Opt. 2017, 56, 5692–5697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Taitt, C.; Anderson, G.P.; Ligler, F.S. Evanescent wave fluorescence biosensors: Advances of the last decade. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2016, 76, 103–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Tompkin, R. Control of Listeria monocytogenes in the food-processing environment. J. Food Prot. 2002, 65, 709–725. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Peveler, W.J.; Algar, W.R. More Than a Light Switch: Engineering Unconventional Fluorescent Configurations for Biological Sensing. ACS Chem. Biol. 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, X.; Osgood, R.M.; Vlasov, Y.A.; Green, W.M.J. Mid-infrared optical parametric amplifier using silicon nanophotonic waveguides. Nat. Photonics 2010, 4, 557–560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rijal, K.; Leung, A.; Shankar, P.M.; Mutharasan, R. Detection of pathogen Escherichia coli O157: H7 AT 70cells/mL using antibody-immobilized biconical tapered fiber sensors. Biosens. Bioelectron. 2005, 21, 871–880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tao, S.; Gong, S.; Fanguy, J.C.; Hu, X. The application of a light guiding flexible tubular waveguide in evanescent wave absorption optical sensing. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2007, 120, 724–731. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harrington, J.A. A review of IR transmitting, hollow waveguides. Fiber Integr. Opt. 2000, 19, 211–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dutta, H.S.; Goyal, A.K.; Srivastava, V.; Pal, S. Coupling light in photonic crystal waveguides: A review. Photonics Nan. Fundam. Appl. 2016, 20, 41–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- John, S. Strong localization of photons in certain disordered dielectric superlattices. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1987, 58, 2486–2489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yablonovitch, E. Inhibited spontaneous emission in solid-state physics and electronics. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1987, 58, 2059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xiao, T.; Zhao, Z.; Zhou, W.; Takenaka, M.; Tsang, H.K.; Cheng, Z.; Goda, K. Mid-infrared germanium photonic crystal cavity. Opt. Lett. 2017, 42, 2882–2885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shankar, R.; Leijssen, R.; Bulu, I.; Lončar, M. Mid-infrared photonic crystal cavities in silicon. Opt. Express 2011, 19, 5579–5586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Senn, T.; Bischoff, J.; Nüsse, N.; Schoengen, M.; Löchel, B. Fabrication of photonic crystals for applications in the visible range by Nanoimprint Lithography. Photonics Nan. Fundam. Appl. 2011, 9, 248–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kappeler, R.; Kaspar, P.; Jäckel, H.; Hafner, C. Record-low propagation losses of 154 dB/cm for substrate-type W1 photonic crystal waveguides by means of hole shape engineering. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2012, 101, 131108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stomeo, T.; Grande, M.; Qualtieri, A.; Passaseo, A.; Salhi, A.; de Vittorio, M.; Biallo, D.; D’orazio, A.; de Sario, M.; Marrocco, V.; et al. Fabrication of force sensors based on two-dimensional photonic crystal technology. Microelectron. Eng. 2007, 84, 1450–1453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Waveguide Name | Recommended Frequency (GHz) | Cutoff Frequency Lowest Order Mode (GHz) | Cutoff Frequency Next Mode (GHz) | Inner Dimensions of Waveguide Opening | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EIA | RCSC | IEC | A Inch | B Inch | |||
- | WG9 | - | 2.20 to 3.30 | 1.686 | 3.372 | 3.5 | 1.75 |
WR340 | WG9A | R26 | 2.20 to 3.30 | 1.736 | 3.471 | 3.4 | 1.7 |
WR284 | WG10 | R32 | 2.60 to 3.95 | 2.078 | 4.156 | 2.84 | 1.34 |
- | WG11 | - | 3.30 to 4.90 | 2.488 | 4.976 | 2.372 | 1.122 |
WR229 | WG11A | R40 | 3.30 to 4.90 | 2.577 | 5.154 | 2.29 | 1.145 |
WR187 | WG12 | R48 | 3.95 to 5.85 | 3.153 | 6.305 | 1.872 | 0.872 |
WR159 | WG13 | R58 | 4.90 to 7.05 | 3.712 | 7.423 | 1.59 | 0.795 |
WR137 | WG14 | R70 | 5.85 to 8.20 | 4.301 | 8.603 | 1.372 | 0.622 |
WR112 | WG15 | R84 | 7.05 to 10 | 5.26 | 10.52 | 1.122 | 0.497 |
WR102 | - | - | 7.00 to 11 | 5.786 | 11.571 | 1.02 | 0.51 |
WR90 | WG16 | R100 | 8.20 to 12.40 | 6.557 | 13.114 | 0.9 | 0.4 |
WR75 | WG17 | R120 | 10.00 to 15 | 7.869 | 15.737 | 0.75 | 0.375 |
WR62 | WG18 | R140 | 12.40 to 18 | 9.488 | 18.976 | 0.622 | 0.311 |
WR51 | WG19 | R180 | 15.00 to 22 | 11.572 | 23.143 | 0.51 | 0.255 |
WR42 | WG20 | R220 | 18.00 to 26.50 | 14.051 | 28.102 | 0.42 | 0.17 |
WR34 | WG21 | R260 | 22.00 to 33 | 17.357 | 34.715 | 0.34 | 0.17 |
WR28 | WG22 | R320 | 26.50 to 40 | 21.077 | 42.154 | 0.28 | 0.14 |
WR22 | WG23 | R400 | 33.00 to 50 | 26.346 | 52.692 | 0.224 | 0.112 |
WR19 | WG24 | R500 | 40.00 to 60 | 31.391 | 62.782 | 0.188 | 0.094 |
WR15 | WG25 | R620 | 50.00 to 75 | 39.875 | 79.75 | 0.148 | 0.074 |
WR12 | WG26 | R740 | 60 to 90 | 48.373 | 96.746 | 0.122 | 0.061 |
WR10 | WG27 | R900 | 75 to 110 | 59.015 | 118.03 | 0.1 | 0.05 |
WR8 | WG28 | R1200 | 90 to 140 | 73.768 | 147.536 | 0.08 | 0.04 |
WR6 | WG29 | R1400 | 110 170 | 90.791 | 181.583 | 0.065 | 0.0325 |
WR7 | WG29 | R1400 | 110 to 170 | 90.791 | 181.583 | 0.065 | 0.0325 |
WR5 | WG30 | R1800 | 140 to 220 | 115.714 | 231.429 | 0.051 | 0.0255 |
WR4 | WG32 | R2200 | 172 to 260 | 137.243 | 274.485 | 0.043 | 0.0215 |
WR3 | WG32 | R2600 | 220 to 330 | 173.571 | 347.143 | 0.034 | 0.017 |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Amiri, I.S.; Azzuhri, S.R.B.; Jalil, M.A.; Hairi, H.M.; Ali, J.; Bunruangses, M.; Yupapin, P. Introduction to Photonics: Principles and the Most Recent Applications of Microstructures. Micromachines 2018, 9, 452. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi9090452
Amiri IS, Azzuhri SRB, Jalil MA, Hairi HM, Ali J, Bunruangses M, Yupapin P. Introduction to Photonics: Principles and the Most Recent Applications of Microstructures. Micromachines. 2018; 9(9):452. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi9090452
Chicago/Turabian StyleAmiri, Iraj Sadegh, Saaidal Razalli Bin Azzuhri, Muhammad Arif Jalil, Haryana Mohd Hairi, Jalil Ali, Montree Bunruangses, and Preecha Yupapin. 2018. "Introduction to Photonics: Principles and the Most Recent Applications of Microstructures" Micromachines 9, no. 9: 452. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi9090452