Guard Cell and Tropomyosin Inspired Chemical Sensor
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Related Work and Background
2.1. Sensor Design
2.2. Biomimetic Chemical Sensors
2.3. Biological Sensing Mechanisms
3. Design Approach
Step | Description |
---|---|
1. Needs or Curiosity | Problem-driven: The traditional route, which involves gathering a set of needs, requirements and mapping them to important flows. Biology-driven: identify an interesting biological system to explore. |
2. Decompose | The needs or interesting biological system are decomposed into, first, a black box model and, second, a functional model. All models created with this method use the Functional Basis modeling lexicon [52]. When following the solution-driven route, the designer can refer to the general biological modeling methodology presented in [53] for assistance with creating a biological functional model. |
3. Query | Knowledge bases are queried to identify solutions to each function/flow pair of the functional model. Two knowledge bases are required: one containing engineered systems and the other containing biological systems. Both are indexed by engineering function and flow. |
4. Make Connections | Connections are made through analogies, metaphors and first principles to assist with making the leap between the biology and engineering domains. |
5. Concept Generation | Concept generation is performed to create biologically-inspired conceptual designs. Concept synthesis involves analysis, reflection and synthesis. Analysis is on the returned engineered and biological solutions from Step 3. Reflection is on the connections to the engineering domain formulated in Step 4. Synthesis is of the existing engineering solutions, engineering solutions inspired by biology and inventive solutions inspired by biology to derive a new design. |
- Physiology: concerned with the vital functions and activities of organisms, as opposed to their structure. (e.g., Detect stimuli , parallel sampling)
- Morphology: the form and structure of an organism, and the associations amongst the structures of an organism. (e.g., Porous surface, helical shape)
- Behavior: the sum of the responses of an organism to internal or external stimuli. (e.g., Actuate muscles, change orientation)
- Strategy: a generic behavior that is exhibited among multiple biological ranks to achieve different goals. (e.g., Shape change, up-front processing)
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Step One
Customer Need/Constraint | Functional Basis Flow |
---|---|
Selectivity | Status signal |
Response time | Electrical energy |
Reusable | Sensing layer (material) |
Indirect sensing mechanism | Sensing layer (material)/Chemical stimulus (energy) |
4.2. Step Two
4.3. Step Three
Function/Flow | Engineering Solutions |
---|---|
Import/ Material | Housing, reservoir, spring |
Import/ Chemical Energy | Container, nozzle |
Guide/ Chemical Energy | Tube |
Couple/Chemical Energy to Material | Basket, container, iron, nozzle, carburetor, burner, housing |
Import/ Electrical Energy | Battery, wire, circuit board, motor, cord, switch |
Transmit/Electrical Energy | Wire, battery contacts, circuit board, compound eye |
Change/ Material | Blade, impeller, heating element, punch, filter, staple plate, popcorn popper |
Detect/ Chemical Energy | Fly chemoreceptor, protein, animalia chemoreception, plantae chemoreception |
Regulate/Electrical Energy | Circuit board, actuator, heating element, switch, resistor, diode |
Convert/Status to Control Signal | Circuit board |
Export/ Chemical Energy | Nozzle, bowl, tube, exhaust, bucket |
Export/ Electrical Energy | Wire, circuit board, cord, switch |
Export/ Status Signal | LCD screen, circuit board, wire, cord, level, speaker |
Function/Flow | Biological Corpus Results |
---|---|
Change/Material | The resulting change in membrane potential causes the sensory cell either to fire action potentials itself or to change its secretion of neurotransmitter onto an associated cell that fires action potentials. Photosensitivity depends on the ability of rhodopsins to absorb photons of light and to undergo a change in conformation. Dynein is a enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATP and uses the released energy to change its shape, thereby generating mechanical force. A gated channel opens when something happens to change the shape of the protein. Microtubules change the shapes of cells and move cells by polymerizing and depolymerizing the protein tubulin. Cell movement is generated by two structures, microtubules and microfilaments, both of which consist of long protein molecules that can change their length or shape. Actin microfilaments can change the shape of a cell simply by polymerizing and depolymerizing. Nets of actin and myosin beneath the cell membrane change a cell’s shape during endocytosis. Chromatophores are pigment-containing cells in the skin that can change the color and pattern of the animal. Because the troponin is bound to the tropomyosin, this conformational change of the troponin twists the tropomyosin enough to ex-pose the actin-myosin binding sites. The Ca2+ ions bind to troponin and change its conformation, pulling the tropomyosin strands away from the myosin binding sites on the actin filament. Because the viruses are too large to go through these channels, special proteins bind to them and help change their shape so that they can squeeze through the pores. Guard cells are modified epidermal cells that change their shape, thereby opening or closing pores called stomata, which serve as passageways between the environment and the leaf's interior. The silk protein that stretches contains amino acids that allow it to curl into a spiral, and when these spirals associate into silk fibers, they can slip along each other to change the fiber’s length. Ionizing radiation (X rays) produces highly reactive chemical species called free radicals, which can change bases in DNA to unrecognizable (by DNA polymerase) forms or break the sugar-phosphate backbone, causing chromosomal abnormalities. |
Function/Flow | Biological Corpus Results |
---|---|
Detect/Chemical Energy | Smell and taste receptors, for example, are epithelial cells that detect specific chemicals. Most sensory cells possess a membrane receptor protein that detects the stimulus and responds by altering the flow of ions across the plasma membrane. Eukaryotic cells carry out cellular respiration in their mitochondria, which are located in the cytoplasm-an aqueous medium. Chemoreceptors are responsible for smell, taste, and the monitoring of aspects of the internal environment such as the level of carbon dioxide in the blood. Crabs and flies, for example, have chemoreceptor hairs on their feet; they taste potential food by stepping in it. After a fly tastes a drop of sugar water by stepping in it, its proboscis (a tubular feeding structure) extends to feed. Since both AT and GC pairs obey the base-pairing rules, how does the repair mechanism “know” whether the AC pair should be repaired by removing the C and replace it with T, for instance, or by removing the A and replacing it with G? The repair mechanism can detect the "wrong" base because a newly synthesized DNA strand is chemically modified some time after replication. Whether the receptor protrudes from the plasma membrane surface or is located in the cytoplasm, the result of ligand binding is the same: the receptor protein changes its three-dimensional structure and initiates a cellular response. So the unique drug resistance phenotype of the cells with recombinant DNA (tetracycline-sensitive and ampicillin-resistant) marks them in a way that can be detected by simply adding ampicillin and/or tetracycline to the medium surrounding the cells. This receptor is located at the plasma membranes of vertebrate skeletal muscle cells and binds the ligand acetylcholine, which is released from nerve cells. |
4.4. Step Four
4.5. Step Five
4.6. Final Concept
4.7. Applications of Biologically-Inspired Chemical Sensor
4.8. Evolution of Biologically-Inspired Chemical Sensor Design
5. Conclusions and Future Work
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Nagel, J.K.S. Guard Cell and Tropomyosin Inspired Chemical Sensor. Micromachines 2013, 4, 378-401. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi4040378
Nagel JKS. Guard Cell and Tropomyosin Inspired Chemical Sensor. Micromachines. 2013; 4(4):378-401. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi4040378
Chicago/Turabian StyleNagel, Jacquelyn K.S. 2013. "Guard Cell and Tropomyosin Inspired Chemical Sensor" Micromachines 4, no. 4: 378-401. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi4040378