Association of Moderate Coffee Intake with Self-Reported Diabetes among Urban Brazilians
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Sampling
2.2. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References and Notes
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Characteristics | Coffee intake (mL/d) | P value⌖ | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NCC | ≤100 | 101–400 | >400 | ||||||
Total group (N) | 271 | 440 | 491 | 238 | |||||
N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | ||
Age (years) | |||||||||
<30 | 106 | 26 | 153 | 38 | 108 | 26 | 40 | 10 | 0.000 |
30–40 | 81 | 20 | 127 | 31 | 143 | 34 | 63 | 15 | |
40–60 | 65 | 15 | 105 | 24 | 171 | 39 | 98 | 22 | |
>60 | 19 | 11 | 55 | 31 | 68 | 38 | 37 | 21 | |
Years of education | |||||||||
≤8 | 56 | 15 | 116 | 31 | 127 | 34 | 76 | 20 | |
8–11 | 121 | 21 | 187 | 33 | 182 | 32 | 76 | 14 | |
11–15 | 74 | 19 | 111 | 29 | 140 | 36 | 63 | 16 | 0.055 |
15–20 | 13 | 16 | 22 | 27 | 29 | 35 | 18 | 22 | |
Sex | |||||||||
Male | 94 | 20 | 135 | 29 | 151 | 32 | 91 | 19 | 0.143 |
Female | 177 | 18 | 305 | 32 | 340 | 35 | 147 | 15 | |
Marital status | |||||||||
Bachelor | 139 | 25 | 194 | 35 | 163 | 30 | 57 | 10 | |
Married | 87 | 14 | 186 | 31 | 214 | 35 | 121 | 20 | 0.000 |
Divorced | 21 | 19 | 24 | 21 | 42 | 38 | 25 | 22 | |
Widow | 11 | 15 | 19 | 26 | 32 | 44 | 11 | 15 | |
Co-habiting | 3 | 7 | 11 | 24 | 17 | 38 | 14 | 31 | |
Physical activity | |||||||||
Practiced | 165 | 22 | 229 | 30 | 245 | 33 | 111 | 15 | 0.007 |
Non-practiced | 106 | 15 | 211 | 31 | 246 | 36 | 127 | 18 | |
Minutes per week | |||||||||
<150 | 28 | 17 | 58 | 34 | 62 | 36 | 22 | 13 | 0.120 |
150–300 | 63 | 20 | 98 | 32 | 98 | 31 | 52 | 17 | |
>300 | 70 | 27 | 69 | 27 | 83 | 33 | 35 | 13 | |
Use of supplements | |||||||||
Yes | 24 | 18 | 41 | 31 | 49 | 38 | 17 | 13 | 0.674 |
No | 247 | 19 | 399 | 30 | 442 | 34 | 221 | 17 | |
Alcohol use | |||||||||
Yes | 101 | 17 | 190 | 31 | 208 | 34 | 108 | 18 | 0.270 |
No | 170 | 20 | 250 | 30 | 283 | 34 | 130 | 16 | |
Alcohol intake (mL/day) | |||||||||
≤100 | 42 | 16 | 73 | 28 | 99 | 39 | 43 | 17 | 0.531 |
100–199 | 10 | 11 | 28 | 32 | 30 | 34 | 19 | 22 | |
≥200 | 19 | 18 | 36 | 34 | 31 | 30 | 19 | 18 | |
Cigarette smoking | |||||||||
Smoker | 15 | 9 | 37 | 21 | 65 | 37 | 59 | 33 | 0.000 |
Ex-smoker | 31 | 12 | 67 | 27 | 102 | 41 | 48 | 19 | |
Non-smoker | 225 | 22 | 337 | 33 | 324 | 32 | 131 | 13 | |
Cigarettes (units/day) | |||||||||
≤10 | 12 | 12 | 28 | 27 | 37 | 36 | 26 | 25 | 0.007 |
≥10 | 3 | 4 | 9 | 13 | 24 | 35 | 33 | 48 | |
BMI classes | |||||||||
Undernutrition | 14 | 26 | 23 | 44 | 13 | 24 | 3 | 6 | |
Eutrophic | 166 | 21 | 245 | 31 | 262 | 33 | 115 | 15 | 0.002 |
Overweight | 56 | 14 | 123 | 30 | 154 | 37 | 79 | 19 | |
Obesity | 23 | 18 | 34 | 27 | 42 | 33 | 28 | 22 |
Knowledge of diseases | Coffee intake (mL per day) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NCC | ≤100 | 100–400 | >400 | P value b | ||||||
N | % | N | % | N | % | N | % | |||
Subjects | ||||||||||
Diabetes mellitus | Yes | 7 | 13 | 16 | 30 | 17 | 31 | 14 | 26 | 0.24 |
No | 263 | 19 | 421 | 31 | 470 | 34 | 216 | 16 | ||
Parent’s antecedentsa | ||||||||||
Hypertension (n = 1,317) | Yes | 126 | 17 | 223 | 30 | 260 | 35 | 132 | 18 | 0.062 |
No | 130 | 23 | 174 | 30 | 184 | 32 | 88 | 15 | ||
Dyslipidaemias (n = 1,127) | Yes | 76 | 18 | 129 | 30 | 149 | 35 | 75 | 17 | 0.349 |
No | 153 | 22 | 210 | 30 | 224 | 32 | 111 | 16 | ||
Diabetes mellitus (n = 1,332) | Yes | 39 | 16 | 73 | 28 | 103 | 39 | 45 | 17 | 0.187 |
No | 217 | 20 | 329 | 31 | 351 | 33 | 175 | 16 | ||
Cancer (n = 1,363) | Yes | 23 | 13 | 49 | 27 | 70 | 39 | 39 | 21 | 0.016 |
No | 240 | 20 | 365 | 31 | 392 | 33 | 185 | 16 | ||
Parkinson’s disease (n = 1,361) | Yes | 8 | 38 | 3 | 14 | 9 | 43 | 1 | 5 | 0.056 |
No | 252 | 19 | 406 | 30 | 455 | 34 | 222 | 17 | ||
Alzheimer’s disease (n = 1,361) | Yes | 5 | 17 | 8 | 26 | 9 | 31 | 8 | 26 | 0.538 |
No | 259 | 20 | 402 | 30 | 455 | 34 | 215 | 16 |
Variable | Unadjusted prevalence ratio (CI) | P value | Adjusted prevalence ratio (CI) | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|
First level | ||||
Marital status | ||||
Bachelor | 1.082 (1.028 to 1.138) | 0.002 | 1.040 (0.996 to 1.086) | 0.077 |
Married | 1.044 (0.987 to 1.104) | 0.131 | 1.044 (0.992 to 1.098) | 0.094 |
Other | 1 (referent) | 1 (referent) | ||
Age (years) | 0.997 (0.995 to 0.998) | <0.001 | 0.997 (0.996 to 0.999) | <0.001 |
Second level | ||||
Diabetes antecedentsa | ||||
Yes | 1 (referent) | 1 (referent) | ||
No | 1.033 (0.997 to 1.070) | 0.073 | 1.010 (0.976 to 1.045) | 0.582 |
Dyslipidaemias antecedentsb | ||||
Yes | 1 (referent) | 1 (referent) | ||
No | 1.023 (0.997 to 1.050) | 0.078 | 1.010 (0.985 to 1.034) | 0.435 |
Third level | ||||
Smoking | ||||
Smoker | 1.026 (1.007 to 1.046) | 0.006 | 1.016 (0.995 to 1.039) | 0.136 |
Ex-smoker | 1.003 (0.975 to 1.032) | 0.829 | 1.032 (0.997 to 1.068) | 0.071 |
Non-smoker | 1 (referent) | 1 (referent) | ||
Supplementationc | ||||
Yes | 1.015 (0.993 to 1.037) | 0.193 | 1.027 (1.001 to 1.053) | 0.037 |
No | 1 (referent) | 1 (referent) | ||
BMI (kg/m2) | 0.993 (0.988 to 0.998) | 0.008 | 0.996 (0.992 to 1.00) | 0.113 |
Fourth level | ||||
Coffee intake | ||||
≤100 mL | 1 (referent) | 1 (referent) | ||
101–400 mL | 1.014 (0.989 to 1.039) | 0.283 | 1.027 (1.001 to 1.053) | 0.039 |
>400 mL | 0.982 (0.945 to 1.021) | 0.368 | 1.010 (0.967 to 1.054) | 0.659 |
Reference | Country and Sample characteristics (n, sex, age) | Model used and results presentation | Observed results | Cup volume (mL) | Total CGA’s content (mg/100 mL) | Caffeine content (mg/100 mL) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 or <1 cup | 1–2 cups or ≤2 cups | 3–4 cups | >4 cups or 5–6 cups | >7 cups | ||||||
Machado et al. (Present study) | BRAZIL N = 1,440 Both sexes 18 to 89 year | Hierarchical regression model and Poisson regression (PR for diabetes status) | 1.0 | 1.027 (2.7% self report of ‘no’ diabetes) | 1.010 | 120 | 84 | 146 | ||
Panagiotakos et al.[18 ] | GREECE n = 937 Both sexes 65 to 100 year | Multiple logistic regression analysis (multi-adjusted OR) | 1.0 | 0.47 | 1.05 | 150 | NI | 28 | ||
Agardh et al. [14] | SWEDEN N = 7,949 Both sexes 35 to 56 year | Multiple logistic regression analysis (OR referred to as RR). | Men: 1.0 Women: 1.0 | 0.52 0.41 | 0.36 0.28 | 150–200 | NI | 67 | ||
Yamaji et al. [15] | JAPAN N = 3,224 Only males 46 to 59 year | Multiple logistic regression analysis | 1.0 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 150 | NI | 40 | |
Van Dam et al. [16] | NETHERLANDS N = 1,312 Both sexes 50 to 74 year | Adjusted differences in 2-hour glucose concentrations according to categories of coffee consumption using analysis of covariance. Logistic regression analysis | Baseline data: ≤2 cups/day multivariate-adjusted 2-hour post-load glucose concentrations were observed: | −0.52 mM | −0.76 mM | −0.87 mM | 125 | 100 | NI | |
Van Dam et al. [ 29] | NETHERLANDS N = 419 Only males 69 to 94 year | Multivariate models | NI | NI | NI | |||||
Prevalence of glucose intolerance | 29% | 21% | 14% | |||||||
Multivariate-adjusted | 1.0 | 0.63 | 0.35 | |||||||
Reference | Country and Sample characteristic s (n, sex, age) | Model used and results presentation | Observed results | Cup volume (mL) | Total CGA’s content (mg/100 mL) | Caffeine content (mg/100 mL) | ||||
Bidel [31] (Academic dissertation) | FINLAND n = 2,956 Both sexes 45 to 64 year | Multiple logistic regression analysis | Coffee consumption as a continuous variable showed that an increment of one cup of coffee per day was associated with a 10% lower risk of impaired fasting glucose, an 8% lower risk of isolated impaired glucose tolerance, a 9% lower risk of impaired glucose regulation, and an 11% lower risk of hyperinsulinaemia if both men and women were combined. | 240 | 35–175 | 42 | ||||
Ärnlöv et al. [27] | SWEDEN N = 936 Only males 50 to 88 year | Multivariate regression models | An increase of one cup of coffee per day was associated with 0.16-units higher insulin sensitivity (insulin sensitivity index was determined by hyperinsulinaemic euglycaemic clamp). | 150 | NI | NI | ||||
Soriguer et al. [28] | SPAIN N = 1,226 Both sexes Adults (age not informed) | Multiple logistic regression analysis | Persons who drank coffee at least once per day had a lower risk for diabetes mellitus and impaired glucose tolerance (odds ratio, 0.66 [95% CI, 0.48 to 0.92]; P < 0.02) than persons who drank coffee only occasionally. | NI | NI | NI | ||||
Isogawa et al. [32] | JAPAN N = 4,620 Both sexes 40 to 50 year | NI | Coffee intake was inversely associated with the prevalence of fasting hyperglycaemia. Risk of having prevalent fasting hyperglycaemia: OR = 0.614 | NI | NI | NI |
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Machado, L.M.M.; Da Costa, T.H.M.; Da Silva, E.F.; Dórea, J.G. Association of Moderate Coffee Intake with Self-Reported Diabetes among Urban Brazilians. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 3216-3231. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8083216
Machado LMM, Da Costa THM, Da Silva EF, Dórea JG. Association of Moderate Coffee Intake with Self-Reported Diabetes among Urban Brazilians. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2011; 8(8):3216-3231. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8083216
Chicago/Turabian StyleMachado, Liliane M. M., Teresa H. M. Da Costa, Eduardo F. Da Silva, and José G. Dórea. 2011. "Association of Moderate Coffee Intake with Self-Reported Diabetes among Urban Brazilians" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 8, no. 8: 3216-3231. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8083216