We present the construction of a methodological proposal to determine which indicators should be considered in the monitoring and evaluation of water resource management in the irrigation districts in Colombia (Land Adequacy Districts). This document begins with a characterization of the subsector of land adequacy, presents the national and international background in the assessment of water resource management, and establishes the optimal scope given the experience of Colombian institutions, the current legal framework, and the quality of official information on subsector issues. Economic, social, water, and climate aspects are considered. Thirteen indicators were chosen from Product Management Indicators, Activity Management Indicators and Results, and Impact Indicators. Full article

Wine’s chemical structure is affected by many biochemical transformations during the winemaking process, which are catalysed by specific enzymes. These compounds participate in the formation of amino acids, which also have fundamental functions in the sensory quality of wine. Therefore, this research focuses on monitoring the effect of enzymes on amino acid concentration during the fermentation of Fetească regală and Sauvignon blanc wines. A total of 22 amino acids were quantified using an ultra-high liquid chromatography system coupled with mass spectrometry detection. Data indicated a major impact of the analysed variables (enzyme type and grape variety) on wine’s characteristics. Considerable amounts of some essential amino acids, such as histidine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan, were found in samples treated with pectinases preparations. The administration of pectinases was more effective in the Fetească regală wines in the applied work conditions, although the β-glycosides generated the highest values for most amino acids in the Sauvignon blanc. Pectinases can provide more acceptable sensory characteristics of wine compared to β-glycosides in the applied work conditions (when they are applied in the pre-fermentation stage), while these samples generally showed the lowest intensity for some negative descriptors, such as phenolic, mineral or a bitter taste. Full article

Foliar fertilization is a potential tool to increase the use-efficiency of nitrogen (N) fertilizers. However, whilst leaf scorching has frequently been reported, the underlying physiological processes are not clear. In the present work, we investigate the intensity of leaf scorching as affected by the balance between ammonium assimilation and accumulation. Leaves were sprayed with urea–ammonium nitrate (UAN) solution without surfactant or applied liquid droplets of urea in different N concentrations with surfactant. UAN solutions without surfactant containing >10% N caused leaf scorching already after 24 h and the severity increased with the N concentration. The same pattern was observed 3 days after the application of urea solutions containing >4% N together with surfactant. The scorching was accompanied by a massive increase in foliar and apoplastic ammonium (NH₄⁺) concentration. Moreover, the activity of glutamine synthetase (GS), most pronouncedly that of the chloroplastic isoform (GS2), decreased a few hours after the application of high N-concentrations. Along with this, the concentration of glutamate—the substrate for GS—decreased. We conclude that leaf scorching is promoted by NH₄⁺ accumulation due to a limitation in N assimilation capacity. Full article

Climate-smart agriculture involves practices and crop modelling techniques aiming to provide practical answers to meet growers’ demands. For viticulturists, early prediction of harvest dates is critical for the success of cultural practices, which should be based on accurate planning of the annual growing cycle. We developed a modelling tool to assess the sugar concentration levels in the Douro Superior sub-region of the Douro wine region, Portugal. Two main cultivars (cv. Touriga-Nacional and Touriga-Francesa) grown in five locations across this sub-region were studied. Grape berry sugar data, with concentrations between 170 and 230 g L⁻¹, were analyzed for the growing season campaigns, from 2014–2020, as an indicator of grape ripeness conditioned by temperature factors. Field data were collected by ADVID (“Associação Desenvolvimento Da Viticultura Duriense”), a regional winemaker association, and by Sogrape, the leading wine company from Portugal. The “Phenology Modeling Platform” was used for calibrating the model with sigmoid functions. Subsequently, model optimizations were performed to achieve a harmonized model, suitable for all estates. Model performance was assessed through two metrics: root mean square error (RMSE) and the Nash–Sutcliffe coefficient of efficiency (EFF). Both a leave-one-out cross-validation and a validation with an independent dataset (for 1991–2013) were carried out. Overall, our findings demonstrate that the model calibration achieved an average EFF of 0.7 for all estates and sugar levels, with an average RMSE < 6 days. Model validation, at one estate for 15 years, achieved an R² of 0.93 and an RMSE < 5. These models demonstrate that air temperature has a high predictive potential of sugar ripeness, and ultimately of the harvest dates. These models were then used to build a standalone easy-to-use computer application (GSCM—Grapevine Sugar Concentration Model), which will allow growers to better plan and manage their seasonal activities, thus being a potentially valuable decision support tool in viticulture and oenology. Full article

The fruit diameter (FD), fruit length (FL), fruit peduncle length (FPL), fruit weight (FW) and fruit index (FI, FL/FD) are important quantitative traits in wolfberry fruit, and also one of the most important goals of variety breeding; however, the inheritance of these traits has not been studied to date. In this study, the genetic analysis of these five fruit traits was undertaken for four pairs of F₁ hybrid populations (CI, CII, CIII and CIV) using the major gene and polygene mixed inheritance model. The results showed that the five fruit traits exhibited super-parent segregation in four hybrid combinations, and five traits of progeny with abundant genetic diversity. In CII, CIII and CIV, the mid-parental heterosis ratio (RH_m%) of FD, FL, FPL and FI was greater than 0 with positive heterosis. FD, FL and FI in CI, CII and CIII were controlled by one pair of additive-dominant major genes (A-1). However, in CIV, FD was controlled by two pairs of additive-dominant alleles (B-6) and FL was best fitted to polygenic control (A-0). In addition, it was found that FPL in CI, CIII and CIV was controlled by one or two pairs of additive-dominant major genes (A-1, B-6, B-1), and FW in CIII and CIV was also controlled by one or two pairs of additive-dominant major gene controls (A-1, B-1). For FD, FPL, FW and FI in CIII and FPL and FW in CII, the major genes heritability was over 50%, indicating that these traits are affected by both genes and the environment, and that the selection of these traits should be considered in later generations due to the large effect of environmental factors. Therefore, this study provides a theoretical basis for QTL mapping and early selection of hybrid breeding of Lycium fruits. Full article

Water is considered the most important natural resource utilized on managed amenity grasslands, and water conservation is an integral part of an overall program in environmental stewardship and best management practices. Measuring and monitoring the soil water content of turfgrass root zones has become an important and routinely accepted practice of golf courses and sports pitches. In recent years, portable hand-held soil moisture meters or sensors have become commercially available and affordable, and therefore have become a valuable and often relied-upon tool for the turfgrass industry practitioner. To maximize or optimize the time and resources needed to measure the root zone volumetric water content of a turf site, a field experiment was conducted to determine the minimum number of soil moisture readings needed per 93 m² of a sand-based root zone. Of note, 93 m² is equivalent to 1000 ft², which is the common form of area measurement utilized by the turfgrass industry in the USA. The standard error of the mean calculated from sampling data revealed that three to four measurements per 93 m² were the minimum number required. Soil moisture meters should be utilized in a structured, purposeful, and site-specific manner along with traditional soil moisture evaluation methods of diligent scouting for visual signs of turfgrass wilt and drought stress, as well as examining soil root zone cores, to support prudent irrigation water management practices. Knowledge of the soil moisture status will support best practices for water conservation and environmental stewardship while optimizing turfgrass quality, function, and performance. Full article

Early adopter-farmers form a living lab of farms that have a great deal of hidden knowledge about the cultivation of cover crops (CCs). Understanding of how early adopters use and value CCs provides valuable knowhow to be shared with other farmers. This study gathered information about the most common under-sown CCs in Finland. A structured survey was used to collect farmers’ experiences considering CCs’ regional suitability, growth, competition, and impacts on soil and cash crop yields. The respondents were both conventional and organic farmers who cultivated CCs in 2020. One thousand one hundred and thirty farmers answered the survey. Four hundred and ten times they shared knowhow about the use of under-sown CCs. They were mostly familiar with clovers, ryegrasses, and timothy as CCs. They answered 27 specific statements on CC (a Likert scale, five answer choices). Farmers’ experiences were well in line with the understanding gained from field experiments. Farmers had experienced positive impacts of CCs on soil health. Organic farmers were slightly more positive than conventional farmers. This is attributable to a longer period of having CCs in organic farms, and general differences in means to control weeds and manage crop nutrition. Gained experience with common species used in grassland mixtures had strengthened farmers’ trust in their use of CCs. Farmers having high cereal areas are an important target group for sharing the early adopters’ experiences, as cereal farmers were more challenged to use even common CCs. Future research and on-farm experiments should focus on CCs with other cash crops instead of cereals (grain legumes, rapeseed, and other minor crops). Full article

It has been reported that fulvic acid (FA) application improves soil structure and nutrient availability. However, the effects of combined application of urea (U) and FA solution on the photosynthesis and nitrogen metabolism in maize (Zea mays L.) have rarely been reported. In this study, pot experiments were conducted in 2017 and 2018, and the effects of combined application of urea and FA solution (U+FA) on soil available nutrient contents, maize endogenous hormone concentrations, carbon and nitrogen metabolism-related enzyme concentrations, maize yield, and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) were researched. Compared with the U treatment, the maize yield and NUE in the U+FA treatment were significantly increased by 8.31% and 17.09 percentage points in 2017 and by 16.90% and 24.31 percentage points in 2018. At the jointing and 12-leaf (V12) stages of maize, soil NH₄⁺ content increased by 139.32% and 12.08%, separately, in the U+FA treatment. At the V12 stage, the auxin, nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, and glutamine synthetase concentrations in maize root were increased by 42.31%, 74.17%, 16.61%, and 45.60%, respectively, and the concentrations of pyruvate phosphate dikinase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase in maize leave were increased by 29.40% and 42.96%, respectively, in the U+FA treatment. The combined application of urea and FA solution significantly improved soil nutrient availability, increased the concentrations of endogenous hormones in maize, stimulated the activities of enzymes related to nitrogen metabolism, promoted the photosynthetic carbon assimilation efficiency, and ultimately improved crop yield and NUE. Full article

Water ionization is an efficient physical water treatment technology, and crop water and nutrient use efficiencies can be improved using ionized water for irrigation. In order to explore the effect of ionized water on soil nitrification and nitrifying microorganisms, we conducted a laboratory soil incubation experiment with the addition of ionized water and ordinary water under different soil water contents (equal to 30%, 60%, 100% and 175% of the field capacity, θ_FC). During the soil incubation, we analyzed soil inorganic nitrogen transformation, ammonia oxidation gene abundances and nitrifying microbial community structure. The results showed that, no matter adding ordinary water or ionized water, the soil nitrification rate and the abundance of ammonia oxidizing bacteria in the 100%θ_FC treatment were significantly higher than those in other water conditions, while the abundance of ammonia oxidizing archaea was not affected by the soil water content. With the same soil water content, the nitrification rate of ionized water treatment was stronger than that of the ordinary water treatment. Although the absolute abundance of ammonia-oxidizing microorganisms in ionized water treatment was significantly lower than that of ordinary water (p < 0.05), the relative abundance of some dominant nitrifying microbial genera in the ionized water treatment was significantly higher (p < 0.05). The dominant genera may play a key role in the nitrification process. The results show that ionized water irrigation can significantly promote the nitrification of silt loam soil, especially under 100%θ_FC conditions, and may regulate soil nitrification by affecting some dominant nitrifying microorganisms. This study provides a theoretical basis for understanding the biological regulation mechanism of ionized water irrigation on soil nutrient transformation and for application of ionized water to field irrigation. Full article

Commercial humic fertilizers (humates) can be used to improve carbon sequestration. In this study, a 3-year field trial (2016–2018) employed four treatments to investigate the mechanism by which humate increases carbon sequestration in fluvo-aquic soils: (1) blank: bare soil with no agricultural treatment; (2) control: standard film mulch (FM) ridge-furrow tillage (which acts as CK); (3) humate: FM tillage plus humate; and (4) straw: FM tillage plus straw. The three treatments strongly affected the soil carbon sequestration, with the humate and straw treatments more significant than the blank treatment. Moreover, the ≥2.0-mm macroaggregate fraction, >1-mm soil aggregate-associated carbon, weight mean diameter (MWD) and geometric mean diameter (GMD), and microbial biomass nitrogen (MBN) values for the straw and humate treatments were all significantly increased (p < 0.05), increasing the carbon sequestration by 1.9 and 0.9 Mg C ha⁻¹y⁻¹ compared to the control, respectively. Carbon sequestration was significantly associated with >1.0-mm aggregate-associated C, MWD, GMD, MBN, and organic C input. Humate and straw synergistically regulate the soil and microbial processes and greatly increase the straw C return to soil while efficiently increasing the macroaggregate fraction and stability, macroaggregate-associated carbon, and physical protection of aggregates, thereby increasing the carbon sequestration. Therefore, humate may be a novel economical alternative to straw to efficiently increase the carbon sequestration in dry fluvo-aquic soils. Full article

The use of marginal-quality waters, not limited to brackish/saline and treated sewage effluent (TSE), is called reclaimed water. Reclaimed water is a sustainable source in the future for use in agriculture, essentially required to offset the food demand of a rapidly growing population. Moreover, the sustainable recovery of reclaimed water is essential for humanity to satisfy extreme sanitation and water-supply demands. To increase access to water supply, alternate water resources’ use, existing water resources’ degradation, and improved water-use efficiency are imperative. There is a high potential to address these factors by using reclaimed water as an alternative source. The reclaimed water treated at a tertiary level has the potential for use in crop production, especially for forage crops, irrigating urban landscapes, recreational and environmental activities, industry, and aquifer recharge to increase strategic water reserves in water-scarce countries. This way, we can save precious freshwater that can be utilized for other purposes. Eminently, freshwater applications for industrial and agronomic sectors account for 20% and 67%, respectively, depleting freshwater resources. The use of reclaimed water in agriculture can significantly reduce pressure on freshwater. However, if the quality of reclaimed water does not comply with international standards, it may cause serious health risks (diseases) and soil pollution (heavy metals). Full article

Genotype, environment, and cultivation system strongly influence strawberry yield and quality. Specifically, the growth of strawberry plants is dependent on the water supply. Nevertheless, the abuse of water in agriculture is necessitating the choice of the lowest water-consumptive plants. The following study showed the performance of ‘Romina’, ‘Sibilla’, and ‘Cristina’ cultivars, grown in open-field conditions, and treated with three doses of water (W): 100% local standard regime, and 20% (W80) and 40% (W60) reductions. The average amount of water administered for W100, W80, and W60 was 1120 m³ ha⁻¹, 891 m³ ha⁻¹, and 666 m³ ha⁻¹, respectively. The water treatment at W60 negatively affected the plant growth and yield, resulting in reduced plant height, leaf number, leaf length and width, and a minor yield. Instead, fruit quality showed higher values of total soluble solids and titratable acidity. Conversely, plants watered with W80 showed results similar to the control (W100) in terms of development and yield. In conclusion, it is possible to assume that a reduction of water is desirable, guaranteeing economic and environmental gains for farmers. Full article

Biological control is considered the only viable integrated disease management practice for controlling the widely distributed and destructive foliar blight and sudden death disease caused by the fungus Rhizoctonia solani AG-1 IA on signal grass (Urochloa brizantha) pastures. Since major signal grass varieties are highly susceptible and fungicide sprays are not labeled for grass pasture cropping systems, biological control is sought as an alternative for managing this fungal disease. In this study, 24 fluorescent Pseudomonas isolates obtained from naturally suppressive soils from the Amazon biome were bio-prospected for their role as biocontrol agents against R. solani AG-1 IA. Based on in vitro antagonism, three isolates (Amana, Poti, and Yara) were selected for further in vivo assays. Multilocus phylogenetic analysis indicated that Amana and Yara were grouped into the Pseudomonas putida group while Poti was grouped into the Pseudomonas asplenii group, and could well constitute a new Pseudomonas species. For in vivo biocontrol assays, the biocontrol agents were applied either via seed-treatment or via foliar spray. All three isolates produced siderophores and solubilized phosphate, while Amana and Poti showed protease and chitinase in vitro activity. Foliar application of P. putida Amana from Amazonian suppressive soils resulted in a significant reduction of the foliar blight disease severity on signal grass. We discuss further steps for the development and labeling of Pseudomonas-based biofungicides for managing the foliar blight disease on signal grass pastures in Brazil. Full article

This study aimed to evaluate the influence of gibberellic acid on both concentration and time of application on the seed production ability of BU cauliflower-1. The experiment was conducted to determine seed production ability at five concentrations of GA₃: G₀ = Control, G₁ = 100 ppm, G₂ = 200 ppm, G₃ = 300 ppm, G₄ = 400 ppm, along with four application times at different growth stages including T₁ = Foliar application at 3 weeks after planting, T₂ = Foliar application at 4 weeks after planting, T₃ = Foliar application at 5 weeks after planting and T₄ = Foliar application at 6 weeks after planting. Results revealed that 200 ppm GA₃ gave the highest plant height (44.05 cm), the number of primary (10.88) and secondary flowering branches (31.33), stalk length (79.53 cm), seeded pods per plant (465), pod length (4.975 cm), seeds per pod (10.87), seed yield per plant (16.16 g), seed yield (0.24 ton/ha), and weight of thousand seeds (4.826 g) with the earliest curd (51.02 days) and flower initiation (84.17 days). It also gave the highest net return (Tk. 4.7 lakh/ha) and benefit-cost ratio (4.34). GA₃ application at 3 weeks after transplanting had the highest numbers of primary and secondary flowering branches, pods, seeded pods, and seed yield per plant. The treatment combination of G₂T₁ gave the earliest curd initiation (49.60 days), the highest number of secondary flowering branches (34.87), seed yield per plant (22.75 g), and seed yield (0.27 ton/h). In contrast, the G₂T₂ treatment resulted in the earliest flower initiation (81.77 days) with the highest pod length (5.20 cm), the number of pods per plant (707), and seeded pods per plant (507), and seeds per pod (11.30). Hence, 200 ppm GA₃ applied three weeks after transplanting could be used as the best combination for cauliflower seed production with the highest net return and benefit-cost ratio. Enhancing seed yield is our ultimate goal; hence, we suggest 200 ppm GA₃ three weeks after transplanting for increased cauliflower seed production with the highest return and benefit-cost ratio in the study area. As we performed the study in a particular location, we recommend multilocation trials in different agro-ecological regions to study the genotype–environment interaction for final confirmation of the results. Full article

Soil salinization is a worldwide problem affecting agriculture and the environment. Utilizing saline land by screening and cultivating salt-tolerant crops is an economical and ecological solution. Leaf beet (Beta vulgaris var. cicla) is an important vegetable resource and has certain salt tolerance, but what concentration it can tolerate still remains to be verified. Hence, this work explored the adaptability of leaf beet to salt stress. A soil culture experiment was conducted. By adding NaCl to the soil, the concentrations of 0% (S₀), 0.3% (S₃), 0.5% (S₅) and 0.7% (S₇) NaCl salinity were set to analyze the changes of leaf beet growth (plant height, leaf number and biomass); leaf morphology (leaf area, shape, leaf mass per area (LMA) and tissue density); and leaf physiology (chlorophyll content, leaf relative water content (LRWC), water content at saturation (WCS), water saturation deficit (WSD) and succulence). The results showed that 0.3% NaCl salinity increased LMA and decreased biomass, while the rest were almost the same as the control (S₀). Under 0.5% and 0.7% NaCl salinity, LRWC decreased significantly, while WCS and WSD increased significantly. Under such salt stress, the leaf beet adapted by reducing plant height, delaying the engendering of new leaves, decreasing leaf area, changing leaf shape, maintaining high chlorophyll content, and increasing LMA, tissue density and succulence. With these strategies, the leaf beets survived under salt stress up to 0.7% NaCl salinity with a certain biomass, providing a meaningful exploration for the multi-purpose planting and application of leaf beets on saline soils. Full article