Metallurgical and Materials Engineering

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Applied Sciences applsci	2.5	5.3	2011	18.4 Days	CHF 2400
Applied Mechanics applmech	-	2.3	2020	23.1 Days	CHF 1200
Materials materials	3.1	5.8	2008	13.9 Days	CHF 2600
Magnetochemistry magnetochemistry	2.6	3.9	2015	15.8 Days	CHF 2200

24 pages, 13934 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Zr and Ti Addition and Aging Treatment on the Microstructure and Tensile Properties of Al-2%Cu-Based Alloys

by Ehab Samuel, Ahmed M. Nabawy, Agnes M. Samuel, Herbert W. Doty, Victor Songmene and Fawzy H. Samuel

Materials 2022, 15(13), 4511; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134511 - 27 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1921

Abstract

The present work investigated the effect of aging treatment on the microstructure and tensile properties of an Al-2%Cu base alloy containing various additions of Zr and other alloying elements. Aging was carried out at temperatures of 180–300 °C for different aging times at [...] Read more.

The present work investigated the effect of aging treatment on the microstructure and tensile properties of an Al-2%Cu base alloy containing various additions of Zr and other alloying elements. Aging was carried out at temperatures of 180–300 °C for different aging times at each temperature. The tensile properties indicated that Zr additions improved the strength of the base alloy, especially at high Zr levels at 180 °C. At the 220 °C aging temperature, however, while Zr addition did not have a beneficial effect on the alloy strength, the ductility was found to improve. Zr-Ti combined additions had a significant effect on the microstructure of the base alloy, as the morphology of the α-Al grains transformed into a non-dendritic morphology, and the grain size decreased sharply. These effects were at their maximum at 180 °C and 0.5 wt% Zr addition. Moreover, the Zr-containing alloys aged at higher temperatures, such as 220 °C and 240 °C, maintained a noticeably higher level of strength over the base alloy aged at the same temperatures. Quality index charts based on the tensile test data also reflected an improvement in alloy quality and strength with Zr-Ti combined additions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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19 pages, 6655 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Corrosion Behavior of Al Modified with Zn in Chloride Solution

by Jesús Porcayo Calderón, José Luis Reyes Barragán, Jesús Israel Barraza Fierro, Héctor Cruz Mejía, Cinthya Dinorah Arrieta González, Víctor Ravelero Vázquez, Kevin Piedad Sánchez, María Teresa Torres-Mancera, Rogel Fernando Retes-Mantilla and Roberto Ademar Rodríguez-Díaz

Materials 2022, 15(12), 4229; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124229 - 15 Jun 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2921

Abstract

Aluminum-based alloys have been considered candidate materials for cathodic protection anodes. However, the Al-based alloys can form a layer of alumina, which is a drawback in a sacrificial anode. The anodes must exhibit uniform corrosion to achieve better performance. Aluminum can be alloyed [...] Read more.

Aluminum-based alloys have been considered candidate materials for cathodic protection anodes. However, the Al-based alloys can form a layer of alumina, which is a drawback in a sacrificial anode. The anodes must exhibit uniform corrosion to achieve better performance. Aluminum can be alloyed with Zn to improve their performance. In this sense, in the present research, the electrochemical corrosion performance of Al-xZn alloys (x = 1.5, 3.5, and 5 at.% Zn) exposed to 3.5 wt.% NaCl for 24 h was evaluated. Polarization curves, linear polarization resistance (LPR), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were used to identify the electrochemical behavior. The microstructure of the samples before the corrosion assessment was characterized by means of X-ray diffraction analyses (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In addition, microstructures of the corroded surfaces were characterized using X-ray mappings via SEM. Polarization curves indicated that Zn additions changed the pseudo-passivation behavior from what pure Al exhibited in a uniform dissolution regime. Furthermore, the addition of Zn shifted the corrosion potential to the active side and increased the corrosion rate. This behavior was consistent with the proportional decrease in polarization resistance (R_p) and charge transfer resistance (R_ct) in the EIS. The analysis of EIS was done using a mathematical model related to an adsorption electrochemical mechanism. The adsorption of chloride at the Al-Zn alloy surface formed aluminum chloride intermediates, which controlled the rate of the process. The rate constants of the reactions of a proposed chemical mechanism were evaluated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 2019 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extraction of Rhenium and Osmium from Lead Technogenic Raw Materials of Copper Production

by Berdikulova Feruza, Zharmenov Abdurassul, Terlikbaeva Alma, Sydykov Alimgazy and Serikbayeva Akmaral

Materials 2022, 15(12), 4071; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124071 - 8 Jun 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2621

Abstract

Lead sludge from copper production is a source of rare metals, such as rhenium and osmium, whose content reaches 0.06–0.08% and 0.0025–0.0050%, respectively. The base of the sludge consists of lead sulfate. A method of reductive smelting of lead sludge from copper smelting [...] Read more.

Lead sludge from copper production is a source of rare metals, such as rhenium and osmium, whose content reaches 0.06–0.08% and 0.0025–0.0050%, respectively. The base of the sludge consists of lead sulfate. A method of reductive smelting of lead sludge from copper smelting production at 1000–1100 °C has been developed. Coke was used as a reducing agent and sodium sulfate as a slag-forming material. Optimal conditions for selective extraction of rare metals in smelting products were found: osmium in the form of metallic form into raw lead and rhenium in the form of perrhenate compound Na₅ReO₆ into sodium-sulfate slag. The developed technology makes it possible to extract rhenium with a high degree of extraction in the form of water-soluble compounds for the subsequent production of commercial salts of rhenium by the known hydrometallurgical methods. The content of rhenium in the slag phase is 0.18–0.25%, with its initial content in the slime of 0.06–0.08%. The degree of rhenium concentration at the first stage of processing is 3–3.2 times in the form of water-soluble perrhenate. Osmium and lead do not form solid solutions; osmium in crude lead is mainly concentrated in the lower zones of lead. A method of obtaining a concentrate containing 53–67% osmium from raw lead with an initial content of 0.0025–0.0050% in the slurry and a concentration number of 13,000–21,000 times has been proposed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 8401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phase Composition Effects on Dynamic Behavior and Strain Rate Sensitivity in Metastable β-Ti Alloys

by Tao Wang, Yong Feng, Xianghong Liu, Kaixuan Wang, Shaoqiang Li and Feng Zhao

Materials 2022, 15(12), 4068; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124068 - 8 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2161

Abstract

In this study, high strain rate tension tests are conducted to determine and compare the dynamic mechanical behaviors and deformation mechanisms of different phase composition α-β metastable β-Ti alloys using a split Hopkinson tension bar. Two typical bimodal equiaxed α_p + β [...] Read more.

In this study, high strain rate tension tests are conducted to determine and compare the dynamic mechanical behaviors and deformation mechanisms of different phase composition α-β metastable β-Ti alloys using a split Hopkinson tension bar. Two typical bimodal equiaxed α_p + β and lamellar α_s + β Ti-45551 alloy microstructures are formed through different hot working and thermal processing for investigating the effect of phase composition or microstructure on mechanical properties and strain rate sensitivity. It is demonstrated that dislocation nucleation and motion in the α/β phase and dislocation tangle or pile up at the α/β interface are typical deformation modes in both of the typical dual-phase Ti alloys at quasi-static loading conditions. Under dynamic loading, both the strength and ductility show a clearly positive strain rate dependence, which is directly related to dislocation activation in the α + β Ti-45551 alloy. Based on microstructure characterizations, it is shown that deformation twinning starts to become a major deformation mechanism in equiaxed α_p + β microstructures under dynamic loading conditions. However, deformation twins are not favored in the lamellar α_s + β Ti-45551 alloy due to its nano phase size. Finally, the mechanical behaviors and strain rate sensitivity are strongly dependent on the phase composition of metastable β-Ti alloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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10 pages, 3535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Magnetic Properties and Washability of Roasted Suspended Siderite Ores

by Yanxin Chen, Chao Yang, Shaowu Jiu, Bo Zhao and Qiang Song

Materials 2022, 15(10), 3582; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103582 - 17 May 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1785

Abstract

Steel is one of the most important industrial materials, which mainly comes from the smelting of iron ore. In view of the huge steel consumption every year, the exploitation of vast reserves of siderite ores is significant for improving the self-sufficiency rate of [...] Read more.

Steel is one of the most important industrial materials, which mainly comes from the smelting of iron ore. In view of the huge steel consumption every year, the exploitation of vast reserves of siderite ores is significant for improving the self-sufficiency rate of iron ore resources and ensuring the strategic security of the iron and steel industries. This paper investigated the influence of temperature, time, and other parameters on the magnetic properties of roasted siderite ores using the method of suspended roasting and analyzed the washability of roasted ores under weak-magnetic-field conditions using the magnetic separation tube experiment. The findings of the study explained the iron phase transformation process, i.e., FeCO₃ was transformed into Fe₃O₄ by suspension magnetization roasting. Furthermore, the saturation magnetization of the roasted ore increased in due time at a constant temperature range of 550–750 °C and a roasting time of less than 5 s. It also increased with increasing temperature and constant time. The roasted ore achieved the best magnetic characteristics after roasting at 750 °C for 5 s. After low-intensity magnetic separation, the iron grade of the concentrate changed to 55.12%, with a recovery rate of 90.34%. The study results provide a reference for the development and application of siderite suspension magnetization roasting technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 9521 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Thermal Simulation Process on Microstructure of Seismic Steel Bars

by Sheng Huang, Changrong Li, Zhiying Li, Changling Zhuang, Zeyun Zeng and Jie Wang

Materials 2022, 15(10), 3438; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103438 - 10 May 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1781

Abstract

Thermal deformation has a significant influence on the microstructure of high-strength antiseismic steel. The effect of hot deformation on the microstructure of experimental steel was studied by the Gleeble-3800 thermal simulator. The microstructure of the steel was characterized by the metallographic microscope, microhardness, [...] Read more.

Thermal deformation has a significant influence on the microstructure of high-strength antiseismic steel. The effect of hot deformation on the microstructure of experimental steel was studied by the Gleeble-3800 thermal simulator. The microstructure of the steel was characterized by the metallographic microscope, microhardness, tensile test, field emission scanning electron microscope, electron backscatter diffraction, and high-resolution transmission electron microscope. The results show that the core microstructure of the test steel is composed of polygonal ferrite and lamellar pearlite. The test steel is mainly ductile fracture. Tensile strength and hardness increase with the decrease of temperature. At 650 °C isothermal temperature, the ferrite distribution was uniform, the average grain size was 7.78 μm, the grain size grade reached 11, the pearlite lamellar spacing was 0.208 μm, and the tensile fracture was distributed with uniform equiaxed dimples. Polygonal ferrite grain boundaries have high density dislocations that can effectively block the initiation and propagation of cracks. However, there are some low dislocation boundaries and subgrain boundaries in ferrite grains. Precipitation strengthening is mainly provided by fine precipitates of V-rich carbonitride in experimental steel. The precipitates are round or narrow strips, about 70–100 nm in size, distributed along ferrite grain boundaries and matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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9 pages, 2928 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Ru on the Evolution of the γ′ Phase in Ni-Al-Ru Alloys

by Shaoyang Wang, Fanqiang Meng, Lu Wang, Hongying Yu and Dongbai Sun

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3344; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093344 - 6 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2067

Abstract

With the development and wide application of nickel-based single-crystal superalloys, the effect of Ru on the microstructure stability and high-temperature properties of superalloys is becoming increasingly important. In this study, the effect of Ru on the evolution of the γ′ phase in Ni-Al-Ru [...] Read more.

With the development and wide application of nickel-based single-crystal superalloys, the effect of Ru on the microstructure stability and high-temperature properties of superalloys is becoming increasingly important. In this study, the effect of Ru on the evolution of the γ′ phase in Ni-Al-Ru ternary alloys during aging treatment was analyzed, using a scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope, combined with energy-dispersive spectroscopy. The relationship between chemical partition behavior and γ/γ′ lattice misfit was investigated in detail. During the aging process, Ru addition suppressed the growth rate and rafting process of γ′ precipitates, while the effect of Ru on hindering γ′ phase growth was reduced when the Ru content was over 3 at%. Ru preferentially partitioned to the γ phase, and its partitioning ratio to the γ phase increased with a variation in Ru content from 1 at% to 3 at% and decreased for the NiAl6Ru alloy. Additionally, the lattice misfit of all alloys was positive and reduced with the increase in Ru content, which hindered the Ru atoms to diffuse into the γ phase and promoted the shape of γ′ precipitates to change from cubic to spherical. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 2693 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Failure Detection within Composite Materials in System Engineering Applications

by Mark Bowkett, Mian Hammad Nazir, Muhammad Majid Hussain, Zulfiqar Ahmad Khan and Rizwan Akram

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(9), 4283; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12094283 - 23 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2897

Abstract

This paper introduces essential key attributes of composite materials with a focus on carbon fibre (CF), followed by a description of common failure modes and proceeds to an investigation of stiffness of continuous CF laminates of 4-ply and 7-ply epoxy resin in pre-preg [...] Read more.

This paper introduces essential key attributes of composite materials with a focus on carbon fibre (CF), followed by a description of common failure modes and proceeds to an investigation of stiffness of continuous CF laminates of 4-ply and 7-ply epoxy resin in pre-preg and wet layup. The three-point flexural test was performed with a Zwick Z010 machine, and the findings are presented. Continuing to real world failure scenarios and moving onto novel concept methods of live failure detection including scope for wood composites. Showing that early design considerations and further research can lead to advantages for system engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 26690 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Corrosion Susceptibility of 304L Stainless Steel Exposed to Crevice Environments

by Kun-Chao Tsai and Chun-Ping Yeh

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3055; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093055 - 22 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2239

Abstract

The present study focuses on the corrosion behavior of 304L stainless steel in crevice corrosion environments. The specimen with a salt deposit of 0.1 g/m² was assembled with a crevice former made of Poly-tetra fluoroethylene (PTFE) to make a test device. The [...] Read more.

The present study focuses on the corrosion behavior of 304L stainless steel in crevice corrosion environments. The specimen with a salt deposit of 0.1 g/m² was assembled with a crevice former made of Poly-tetra fluoroethylene (PTFE) to make a test device. The assembled test devices were kept at the ambient temperature of 45 °C in combination with a relative humidity of 45%, 55%, and 70%. After testing for 5000 h, the corroded area of the specimen exposed to 70% humidity was three times larger than that subjected to 45% humidity. For the specimen sustaining a tensile force, the crack growth rate was approximately 1.4 mm/year at the stress level of 300 MPa in a crevice corrosion environment with 0.1 g/m² of sea salt deposited on the surface. The small portion of intergranular cracking occurred at the surface due to the existed strain on the surface. As cracks propagate in a grain, the grain undergoes a greater localized deformation, and some secondary cracks would develop inside the grain; transgranular cracking was vigorous due to the path corrosion that nucleated at the slip steps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 3345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dimensional Stability of Mirror Substrates Made of Silicon Particle Reinforced Aluminum

by Jan Kinast, Andreas Tünnermann and Andreas Undisz

Materials 2022, 15(9), 2998; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15092998 - 20 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2202

Abstract

In the present study, the thermal cycling stability of mirrors made of silicon particle reinforced aluminum compounds, containing an amount of 42 ± 2 wt.% silicon particles, is investigated with respect to thermal loading. The compound is processed by single-point diamond turning to [...] Read more.

In the present study, the thermal cycling stability of mirrors made of silicon particle reinforced aluminum compounds, containing an amount of 42 ± 2 wt.% silicon particles, is investigated with respect to thermal loading. The compound is processed by single-point diamond turning to optical mirrors that were subsequently thermally cycled in a temperature range between 40 °C to −60 °C and between 20 °C and −196 °C, respectively. The residual shape change of the optical surface was analyzed using Fizeau interferometry at room temperature. The change of shape deviation of the mirrors is compared with dilatometric studies of cylinders using the same temperature regime. Due to different coefficients of thermal expansion of the two constituents of the compound, thermal mismatch stresses in the ductile aluminum matrix and the brittle silicon particles are induced by the investigated thermal loads. The plasticity that occurs causes the formation of dislocations and stacking faults as substantiated by Transmission Electron Microscopy. It could be shown that the silicon particles lead to the cold working process of the reinforced aluminum matrix upon thermal cycling. By using interferometry, a higher dimensional stability of mirrors made of silicon particle reinforced aluminum due to thermal loads is demonstrated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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17 pages, 4150 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review on Preparation Technology and Properties of Refractory High Entropy Alloys

by Xiqiang Ren, Yungang Li, Yanfei Qi and Bo Wang

Materials 2022, 15(8), 2931; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082931 - 17 Apr 2022

Cited by 46 | Viewed by 6684

Abstract

Refractory high entropy alloys have broad application prospects due to their excellent comprehensive properties in high temperature environments, and they have been widely implemented in many complex working conditions. According to the latest research reports, the preparation technology of bulk and coating refractory [...] Read more.

Refractory high entropy alloys have broad application prospects due to their excellent comprehensive properties in high temperature environments, and they have been widely implemented in many complex working conditions. According to the latest research reports, the preparation technology of bulk and coating refractory high entropy alloys are summarized, and the advantages and disadvantages of each preparation technology are analyzed. In addition, the properties of refractory high entropy alloys, such as mechanical properties, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance, and radiation resistance are reviewed. The existing scientific problems of refractory high entropy alloys, at present, are put forward, which provide reference for the development and application of refractory high entropy alloys in the future, especially for plasma-facing materials in nuclear fusion reactors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 12759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis, Structural, and Mechanical Behavior of β-Ca₃(PO₄)₂–ZrO₂ Composites Induced by Elevated Thermal Treatments

by Nandha Kumar Ponnusamy, Hoyeol Lee, Jin Myoung Yoo and Seung Yun Nam

Materials 2022, 15(8), 2924; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082924 - 17 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2290

Abstract

Biocompatible β-Ca₃(PO₄)₂ and mechanically stable t-ZrO₂ composites are currently being combined to overcome the demerits of the individual components. A series of five composites were synthesized using an aqueous precipitation technique. Their structural and mechanical [...] Read more.

Biocompatible β-Ca₃(PO₄)₂ and mechanically stable t-ZrO₂ composites are currently being combined to overcome the demerits of the individual components. A series of five composites were synthesized using an aqueous precipitation technique. Their structural and mechanical stability was examined through X-ray diffraction, Rietveld refinement, FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, high-resolution scanning electron microscopy, and nanoindentation. The characterization results confirmed the formation of β-Ca₃(PO₄)₂–t-ZrO₂ composites at 1100 °C. Heat treatment above 900 °C resulted in the degradation of the composites because of cationic interdiffusion between Ca²⁺ ions and O⁻² vacancy in Zr⁴⁺ ions. Sequential thermal treatments correspond to four different fractional phases: calcium-deficient apatite, β-Ca₃(PO₄)₂, t-ZrO₂, and m-ZrO₂. The morphological features confirm in situ synthesis, which reveals abnormal grain growth with voids caused by the upsurge in ZrO₂ content. The mechanical stability data indicate significant variation in Young’s modulus and hardness throughout the composite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 5975 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Coke Resistivity for the Manganese Alloy Market

by Jonathan Nhiwatiwa and Robert Cromarty

Materials 2022, 15(8), 2897; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082897 - 15 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1877

Abstract

The submerged arc furnace (SAF) has become the equipment of choice to produce manganese ferro-alloy. Furnace operators aim to reduce the cost of production by better understanding the role played by the various raw materials involved in the process. Coke is one of [...] Read more.

The submerged arc furnace (SAF) has become the equipment of choice to produce manganese ferro-alloy. Furnace operators aim to reduce the cost of production by better understanding the role played by the various raw materials involved in the process. Coke is one of the key raw materials fed into the SAF; it plays three key roles in electric furnaces: as a reducing agent, as a source of carbon found in the alloy, and as a resistive element facilitating heat generation in the furnace. The heat generated plays two key functions in the furnace: ensuring both the metal and the slag have a sufficient low viscosity, and providing the heat required to support endothermic reactions. This study investigated the ambient-temperature and high-temperature resistivity characteristics of coke made from single-source coals. The measurement of coke resistivity was performed using the Kelvin (four-point) technique. The results showed a statistically significant difference in mean resistivity between cokes made from different coals. It was observed that coke resistivity generally decreased with increasing temperatures. Raman spectroscopy showed that the structural order of coke changes with increasing temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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30 pages, 88942 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Performance and Precipitation Behavior in Al-Si-Cu-Mg Cast Alloys: Effect of Prolonged Thermal Exposure

by Mohamed H. Abdelaziz, Agnes M. Samuel, Herbert W. Doty, Victor Songmene and Fawzy H. Samuel

Materials 2022, 15(8), 2830; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082830 - 12 Apr 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2225

Abstract

Al-Si-Cu-Mg cast (354) alloys are used in the automotive sector owing to their remarkable properties which are achievable after applying appropriate thermal treatments. Zirconium, Nickel, and Manganese were added to this category of Al-alloys to preserve good mechanical properties while being exposed to [...] Read more.

Al-Si-Cu-Mg cast (354) alloys are used in the automotive sector owing to their remarkable properties which are achievable after applying appropriate thermal treatments. Zirconium, Nickel, and Manganese were added to this category of Al-alloys to preserve good mechanical properties while being exposed to elevated temperatures for long times. The ultimate and yield strength values obtained at room temperature for the stabilized (thermally-exposed) T5-treated condition were comparable to those of the stabilized T6-treated condition, whereas the same properties for T5-treated alloys were higher than those of T6-treated ones for elevated-temperature tensile testing. Interestingly, the results showed that the addition of 0.75 wt.% Mn was competitive with the addition of 2 and 4 wt.% Ni with respect to the elevated-temperature and ambient temperature strength values, respectively. In addition, the Mn-containing alloy M3S exhibited improved ductility values at ambient temperature and at 250 °C, compared to the Ni-containing alloys. Examination of the fracture surface of tested samples revealed the advantageous role of sludge particles in enhancing the performance of Mn-containing alloys through their resistance to the propagation of cracks that developed in many intermetallic phases. This finding is considered to be economically significant in view of the lower price of manganese compared to that of nickel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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20 pages, 15085 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hot Deformation Behavior of the 25CrMo4 Steel Using a Modified Arrhenius Model

by Hongtu Xu, Tiantai Tian, Jiahao Zhang, Liqun Niu, Hongbin Zhu, Xingtao Wang and Qi Zhang

Materials 2022, 15(8), 2820; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082820 - 12 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2374

Abstract

25CrMo4 steel is widely used in the manufacturing of high-speed train axles due to its excellent mechanical properties. The purpose of this study is to develop an accurate modified constitutive model to describe the hot deformation behavior of the steel. Isothermal compression experiments [...] Read more.

25CrMo4 steel is widely used in the manufacturing of high-speed train axles due to its excellent mechanical properties. The purpose of this study is to develop an accurate modified constitutive model to describe the hot deformation behavior of the steel. Isothermal compression experiments were performed at different strain rates (0.01, 0.1, 0.5, and 1 s⁻¹) and different temperatures (950, 1000, 1050, and 1100 °C) using a Gleeble-3800 thermal simulator. The microstructure after hot deformation was observed by the electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and the effects of temperature and strain rate were analyzed. The results showed that the coupling effect of temperature and strain rate on the dislocation density led to the change in the shape of the true stress–strain curve and that dynamic recovery (DRV) and dynamic recrystallization (DRX) caused the macroscopic softening phenomenon, with DRX being the main mechanism. Based on the true stress–strain curves, the strain-compensated Arrhenius constitutive model was calibrated. To improve prediction ability, a modified Arrhenius constitutive model was proposed, in which the temperature and strain rate coupling correction functions were incorporated. The original, modified Arrhenius models were evaluated according to the absolute relative error (ARE), the average absolute relative error (AARE), and the correlation coefficient (R²). Compared with the original model, the modified Arrhenius model has a higher prediction accuracy, with the ARE value mostly below 4%, the AARE value of 1.91%, and the R² value of 0.9958. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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10 pages, 6676 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Portevin-Le Châtelier Effect in a Powder Metallurgy Co-Ni-Based Superalloy

by Chao Li, Jianwei Teng, Biaobiao Yang, Xianjue Ye, Lan Huang, Yong Liu and Yunping Li

Materials 2022, 15(8), 2796; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082796 - 11 Apr 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2559

Abstract

The Portevin-Le Châtelier (PLC) effect in a powder metallurgy (PM) Co-Ni-based superalloy was systematically investigated via the tensile tests at temperatures ranging from 200 to 600 °C and strain rates at 1.0 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.0 × 10⁻². Both normal [...] Read more.

The Portevin-Le Châtelier (PLC) effect in a powder metallurgy (PM) Co-Ni-based superalloy was systematically investigated via the tensile tests at temperatures ranging from 200 to 600 °C and strain rates at 1.0 × 10⁻⁴ to 1.0 × 10⁻². Both normal and inverse PLC effects were observed in the PLC regime, and the former appeared in the A and B types at a low temperature, whilst the latter appeared in the C type at an elevated temperature. Both positive and negative strain rate sensitivities (SRS) were shown in PLC regime, and SRS should be derived from same types of serrations. Based on the calculated activation energy, the substitutional atom Mo is considered to take primary responsibility for the PLC effect in present alloy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 21610 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A New Insight on Phased Array Ultrasound Inspection in MIG/MAG Welding

by José Alonso, Santiago Pavón, Juan Vidal, José Perdigones and Isaac Carpena

Materials 2022, 15(8), 2793; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082793 - 11 Apr 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2299

Abstract

Weldment inspection is a critical process in the metal industry. It is first conducted visually, then manually and finally using instrumental techniques such as ultrasound. We made one hundred metal inert/active gas (MIG/MAG) weldments on plates of naval steel S275JR+N with no defects, [...] Read more.

Weldment inspection is a critical process in the metal industry. It is first conducted visually, then manually and finally using instrumental techniques such as ultrasound. We made one hundred metal inert/active gas (MIG/MAG) weldments on plates of naval steel S275JR+N with no defects, and inducing pores, slag intrusion and cracks. With the objective of the three-dimensional reconstruction of the welding defects, phased array ultrasound inspections were carried out. Error-free weldment probes were used to provide the noise level. The results can be summarized as follows. (i) The top view obtained from the phased array provided no conclusive information about the welding defects. The values of the echo amplitudes were about 70 mV for pores and cracks, and greater than 150 mV for slag intrusion, all of which showed great variability. (ii) The sectional data did not lie at the same depths and they needed to be interpolated. (iii) The interpolated sectional views, or C-scans, allowed the computation of top views at any depth, as well as the three-dimensional reconstruction of the defects. (iv) The use of the simplest tool, consisting of the frequency histogram and its statistical moments, was sufficient to classify the defects. The mean echo amplitudes were 33 mV for pores, 72.16 mV for slag intrusion and 43.19 mV for cracks, with standard deviations of 8.84 mV, 24.64 mV and 12.39 mV, respectively. These findings represent the first step in the automatic classification of welding defects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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23 pages, 3578 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Machine-Learning Approach to Determine Surface Quality on a Reactor Pressure Vessel (RPV) Steel

by James M. Griffin, Jino Mathew, Antal Gasparics, Gábor Vértesy, Inge Uytdenhouwen, Rachid Chaouadi and Michael E. Fitzpatrick

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(8), 3721; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12083721 - 7 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2379

Abstract

Surface quality measures such as roughness, and especially its uncertain character, affect most magnetic non-destructive testing methods and limits their performance in terms of an achievable signal-to-noise ratio and reliability. This paper is primarily focused on an experimental study targeting nuclear reactor materials [...] Read more.

Surface quality measures such as roughness, and especially its uncertain character, affect most magnetic non-destructive testing methods and limits their performance in terms of an achievable signal-to-noise ratio and reliability. This paper is primarily focused on an experimental study targeting nuclear reactor materials manufactured from the milling process with various machining parameters to produce varying surface quality conditions to mimic the varying material surface qualities of in-field conditions. From energising a local area electromagnetically, a receiver coil is used to obtain the emitted Barkhausen noise, from which the condition of the material surface can be inspected. Investigations were carried out with the support of machine-learning algorithms, such as Neural Networks (NN) and Classification and Regression Trees (CART), to identify the differences in surface quality. Another challenge often faced is undertaking an analysis with limited experimental data. Other non-destructive methods such as Magnetic Adaptive Testing (MAT) were used to provide data imputation for missing data using other intelligent algorithms. For data reinforcement, data augmentation was used. With more data the problem of ‘the curse of data dimensionality’ is addressed. It demonstrated how both data imputation and augmentation can improve measurement datasets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 2739 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spent Mushroom Substrate and Electric Arc Furnace Dust Recycling by Carbothermic Reduction Method

by Hao-Hsun Chang, In-Gann Chen, Hao-Yun Yu, Meng-Yu Tsai, Keng-Tung Wu and Shih-Hsien Liu

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2639; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072639 - 3 Apr 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2858

Abstract

With recent increases in environmental awareness, the circular economy concept, which involves turning waste into usable products, has gradually become widely accepted. Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is an agricultural waste that lacks recycling channels in Taiwan. This study explored the feasibility of simultaneously [...] Read more.

With recent increases in environmental awareness, the circular economy concept, which involves turning waste into usable products, has gradually become widely accepted. Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is an agricultural waste that lacks recycling channels in Taiwan. This study explored the feasibility of simultaneously recycling two completely different types of waste: spent mushroom substrate (SMS), an agricultural waste, and electric-arc furnace dust (EAFD), an industrial waste. Specifically, SMS was used to replace metallurgical coke as a reducing agent for EAFD, which underwent carbothermic reduction to recycle valuable metallic Zn. The results showed that if SMS and EAFD were mixed at a C/O ratio of 0.8, the degree of Zn removal achieved 95% at 1100 °C, which is 150 °C lower than the reduction temperature of the EAFD-coke mixture (due to volatile matter (VM) in SMS). For the reduction of ZnO in EAFD, with the assistance of VM in SMS, the C/O ratio can be decreased from 0.8 to 0.16 at 1300 °C, achieving a high degree of Zn removal over 95%. In addition, the torrefaction of SMS increased the fixed carbon content and improved the Zn productivity at the same C/O ratio, reaching almost the same productivity as the coke sample (SMS torrefaction = 500 °C, C/O = 0.8, reduction = 1200 °C, Zn removal~99%). Finally, CO₂ emission reductions from the use of SMS were also estimated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 4652 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Graphite Electrode Plasma Heating Technology in Continuous Casting

by Yong Wang, Jingxin Song, Nailiang Cheng, Zhenhe Guo, Jingshe Li, Shufeng Yang, Mengjing Zhao and Cun Wang

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2590; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072590 - 1 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2019

Abstract

In this study, the industrial, experimental effect of a plasma heating system in the form of graphite electrode in the tundish of double-strand slab caster was evaluated for the first time. The system uses three graphite electrodes, two of which are cathodes and [...] Read more.

In this study, the industrial, experimental effect of a plasma heating system in the form of graphite electrode in the tundish of double-strand slab caster was evaluated for the first time. The system uses three graphite electrodes, two of which are cathodes and one of which is an anode, to form a conductive loop through molten steel in the tundish. The system is built on an old two-strand slab caster and is installed on the premise that the original ladle tundish equipment remains unchanged. The normal working power of the system is up to 1500 kW, and the heating rate of molten steel in the tundish can reach 1.0 °C/min under conditions of 5 t/min total steel throughput and a tundish capacity of 50 t. After the system was put into operation, the purity of molten steel undergoing heating was investigated. The sample analysis of low carbon steel and ultra-low carbon steel before and after heating showed that the contents of N and O in the steel did not increase, while the size of the oxide inclusions near the heating point increased but showed little change in terms of the overall quantity. This process benefited from the addition of inert gas during the heating process to control the atmosphere in the heating area, which prevents reoxidation. The sample analysis also showed that there is no obvious carbon absorption phenomenon after heating, and the fluctuation in C content is within 0.0001%, which is consistent with the general production results. By using this system, the temperature of molten steel in the steelmaking process can be reduced by 10~15 °C, allowing continuous low superheat casting to be supported, which is helpful for reducing production costs and improving the solidified structure inside the slab. The results of the study show that the plasma heating technology can be applied to the continuous casting of low carbon–nitrogen steel slabs, which shows the benefits of reducing emissions and improving production efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 4714 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Tempering Temperature on Microstructure and Sulfide Stress Cracking of 125 Ksi Grade Casing Steel

by Ming Luo, Gao-Yang Zhou, Han Shen, Xin-Tian Wang, Mou-Cheng Li, Zhong-Hua Zhang and Guang-Hui Cao

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2589; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072589 - 1 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2316

Abstract

The influence of tempering temperature on the microstructure of 0.5Cr0.4W steels was investigated by scanning electron microscope, and the roles of grain boundary character, dislocation, and Taylor factor in sulfide stress cracking (SSC) resistance were interpreted using the election backscattered diffraction technique. The [...] Read more.

The influence of tempering temperature on the microstructure of 0.5Cr0.4W steels was investigated by scanning electron microscope, and the roles of grain boundary character, dislocation, and Taylor factor in sulfide stress cracking (SSC) resistance were interpreted using the election backscattered diffraction technique. The 0.5Cr0.4W steels tempered at 690 °C, 700 °C, and 715 °C all showed tempered martensites. The specimen tempered at 715 °C exhibited a higher critical stress intensity factor (K_ISSC) of 34.58 MPa·m^0.5, but the yield strength of 800 MPa did not meet the criterion of 125 ksi (862 MPa) grade. When the specimen was tempered at 690 °C, the yield strength reached 960 MPa and the K_ISSC was only 21.36 MPa·m^0.5, displaying poorer SSC resistance. The 0.5Cr0.4W steel tempered at 700 °C showed a good combination of yield strength (887 MPa) and SSC resistance (K_ISSC: 31.16 MPa·m^0.5). When increasing the tempering temperature, the local average misorientation and Taylor factor of the 0.5Cr0.4W steels were decreased. The reduced dislocation density, and greater number of grains amenable to slippage, produced less hydrogen transport and a lower crack sensitivity. The SSC resistance was, thus, increased, owing to the minor damage to hydrogen aggregation. Therefore, 700 °C is a suitable tempering temperature for 0.5Cr0.4W casing steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 13714 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Initial Corrosion Destruction of a Metal Matrix around Different Non-Metallic Inclusions on Surfaces of Pipeline Steels

by Elena Sidorova, Andrey Karasev, Denis Kuznetsov and Pär G. Jönsson

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2530; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072530 - 30 Mar 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2756

Abstract

Typical non-metallic inclusions in two industrial low-carbon steels for oil pipelines were investigated as three-dimensional objects on film filters after electrolytic extraction and filtration of metal samples. A method of soft chemical extraction using a 10%AA electrolyte was used to study the initial [...] Read more.

Typical non-metallic inclusions in two industrial low-carbon steels for oil pipelines were investigated as three-dimensional objects on film filters after electrolytic extraction and filtration of metal samples. A method of soft chemical extraction using a 10%AA electrolyte was used to study the initial corrosion process in the steel matrix surrounding various non-metallic inclusions. To determine and compare “corrosive” inclusions and their influence on the initial stages of corrosion of the adjacent layer of the steel matrix, quantitative parameters (such as the diameter of the corrosion crater (D_cr) and pit (D_pit), and the relative dissolution coefficient of the metal matrix (KD) around various inclusions) were determined after chemical extraction. It was found that CaO-Al₂O₃-MgO oxides and TiN inclusions did not cause an initial corrosion of the steel matrix surrounding these inclusions. However, tensile stresses in the steel matrix occurred around CaS inclusions (or complex inclusions containing a CaS phase), which contributed to the initiation of corrosion around these inclusions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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10 pages, 4867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tensile Properties and Microstructure Evolutions of Low-Density Duplex Fe–12Mn–7Al–0.2C–0.6Si Steel

by Shuai Liu, Yinlei Ge, Huanyou Liu, Junyu Liu, Yunli Feng, Chen Chen and Fucheng Zhang

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2498; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072498 - 28 Mar 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3078

Abstract

An austenite-ferrite duplex low-density steel (Fe–12Mn–7Al–0.2C–0.6Si, wt%) was designed and fabricated by cold rolling and annealing at different temperatures. The tensile properties, microstructure evolution, deformation mechanism and stacking fault energy (SFE) of the steel were systemically investigated at ambient temperature. Results show two [...] Read more.

An austenite-ferrite duplex low-density steel (Fe–12Mn–7Al–0.2C–0.6Si, wt%) was designed and fabricated by cold rolling and annealing at different temperatures. The tensile properties, microstructure evolution, deformation mechanism and stacking fault energy (SFE) of the steel were systemically investigated at ambient temperature. Results show two phases of fine equiaxed austenite and coarse band-like δ-ferrite in the microstructure of the steel. With increasing annealing temperature, the yield and tensile strengths decrease while the total elongation increases. At initial strains, the deformation is mainly concentrated in the fine austenite and grain boundaries of the coarse δ-ferrite, and the interior of the coarse δ-ferrite gradually deforms with further increase in the strain to 0.3. No twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) or transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) occurred during the tensile deformation. Considering element segregation and two-phase proportion, the chemical composition of austenite was measured more precisely. The SFE of the austenite is 39.7 mJ/m², and the critical stress required to produce deformation twins is significantly higher than the maximum flow stress of the steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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21 pages, 14624 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical, Microstructure, and Corrosion Characterization of Dissimilar Austenitic 316L and Duplex 2205 Stainless-Steel ATIG Welded Joints

by Kamel Touileb, Abdeljlil Chihaoui Hedhibi, Rachid Djoudjou, Abousoufiane Ouis, Abdallah Bensalama, Albaijan Ibrahim, Hany S. Abdo and Mohamed M. Z. Ahmed

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2470; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072470 - 27 Mar 2022

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3583

Abstract

The present work analyzed the microstructure, mechanical, and corrosion properties of a dissimilar activated tungsten inert gas (ATIG) welded 2205 duplex stainless-steel (2205 DSS) plate and AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel (316L ASS) and compared them to conventional dissimilar welded tungsten inert gas [...] Read more.

The present work analyzed the microstructure, mechanical, and corrosion properties of a dissimilar activated tungsten inert gas (ATIG) welded 2205 duplex stainless-steel (2205 DSS) plate and AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel (316L ASS) and compared them to conventional dissimilar welded tungsten inert gas (TIG). The mixing design method is a tool used to establish the optimal combined flux to achieve a full-penetrated weld bead in one single pass. A microstructure study was carried out by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The ATIG and TIG fusion zones revealed a matrix ferrite structure with intragranular austenite, Widmanstätten needles, allotriomorphic austenite at the grain boundaries, and plate-like precipitates free of deleterious phases such as sigma and chi phases or second austinite owing to the moderate heat input provided of 0.8 kJ/mm. Ferrite volume proportion measurements were carried out utilizing the areas image processing software. The average ferrite volume proportion attained 54% in the ATIG weld zone; however, it decreased to 47% for the TIG weld zone. The results showed that the optimal flux composed by 91% Mn₂O₃ and 9% Cr₂O₃ allowed a full penetrated weld to be obtained in one single pass. However, a double side weld is required for conventional TIG processes. The values of the tensile (599 Mpa), hardness (235 HV), and impact test (267 J/cm²) measurements of ATIG welds were close to those of conventional TIG welds. The elaborated flux did not degrade the mechanical properties of the joint; on the contrary, it reinforced the strength property. The width of the ATIG heat-affected zone was narrower than that of TIG welding by 2.6 times, ensuring fewer joint distortions. The potentiodynamic polarization test results showed a better electrochemical behavior for ASS 316L than with the weldment and the parent metal of DSS 2205. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 5447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study of Microstructure and Fatigue in Aluminum/Steel Butt Joints Made by CMT Fusion-Brazing Technology

by Yu Fang, Shanglei Yang, Yubao Huang and Xuan Meng

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2367; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072367 - 23 Mar 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2064

Abstract

Cold metal transfer (CMT) fusion brazing technology was used to weld 6061 aluminum alloy and Q235 galvanized steel with ER4043 welding wire. The microstructure, hardness, tensile performance, and fatigue performance of the welded joint were observed and analyzed. The results show that the [...] Read more.

Cold metal transfer (CMT) fusion brazing technology was used to weld 6061 aluminum alloy and Q235 galvanized steel with ER4043 welding wire. The microstructure, hardness, tensile performance, and fatigue performance of the welded joint were observed and analyzed. The results show that the tensile strength of the welded joint is 110.83 MPa and the fatigue strength limit is 170 MPa. In the fatigue process, the coupon first undergoes cyclic hardening and then cyclic softening and a ratchet effect occurs. The coupon was broken at the interface layer or weld zone where the fatigue strength limit is the lowest. The fatigue crack initiation is mainly caused by: (1) inclusions and second-phase particles; and (2) porosity and incomplete fusion. When cracks encounter holes during expansion, the expansion direction will change. The fatigued coupon displays a toughness fracture in the instantaneous fracture zone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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17 pages, 9436 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Softened Microstructure and Properties of 12 μm Thick Rolled Copper Foil

by Rui Feng, Weichao Zhao, Yumei Sun, Xiaowen Wang, Benkui Gong, Baoping Chang and Tianjie Feng

Materials 2022, 15(6), 2249; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15062249 - 18 Mar 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2952

Abstract

Up to now, 12 μm thick rolled copper foil is the thinnest rolled copper foil that can be stably produced. The softened microstructure and properties of 12 μm thick rolled copper foil were systematically studied in this paper. The softened process consists of [...] Read more.

Up to now, 12 μm thick rolled copper foil is the thinnest rolled copper foil that can be stably produced. The softened microstructure and properties of 12 μm thick rolled copper foil were systematically studied in this paper. The softened process consists of thermal treatment at 180 °C for different times. The results show that the softened annealing texture is mainly cubic texture, and the cubic texture fraction increases with the increase in annealing time. The cubic texture fraction reaches the highest (34.4%) after annealing for 60 min. After annealing for 1–5 min, the tensile strength and the bending times decrease significantly. After annealing for 10–60 min, the tensile strength tends to be stable, and the bending times increase slightly. With the increase in annealing time, the electrical conductivity increases gradually, reaching 92% International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) after annealing for 60 min. Electrical conductivity can be used as a fast and effective method to analyze the microstructure of metals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 2486 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Composition of Corroded Reinforcing Steel Surface in Solutions Simulating the Electrolytic Environments in the Micropores of Concrete in the Propagation Period

by Pascual Saura, Emilio Zornoza, Carmen Andrade, Verónica Ferrandiz-Mas and Pedro Garcés

Materials 2022, 15(6), 2216; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15062216 - 17 Mar 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1936

Abstract

In the present work, the composition of a corroded reinforcing steel surface is studied at different pH values (related to different degrees of development in the corroding zones of the corrosion process) in solutions simulating chloride-contaminated environments. The media considered consist of saturated [...] Read more.

In the present work, the composition of a corroded reinforcing steel surface is studied at different pH values (related to different degrees of development in the corroding zones of the corrosion process) in solutions simulating chloride-contaminated environments. The media considered consist of saturated calcium hydroxide solutions, progressively neutralized with FeCl₂ or by adding 0.5 M NaCl to the solution. The results found in present work confirm higher levels of acidity in the solutions with higher concentrations of Fe²⁺.In the present work, emphasis is given to the composition of the oxides in solutions that simulate the conditions that exist inside of a localized corrosion pit as a consequence of the reaction of chloride on reinforcing steel. The oxides were studied using Raman and XPS techniques; the results obtained with both techniques are mutually coherent. Thus, in the passive state, the oxides found are those reported previously by other authors, while in the corroding state, the present results are more comprehensive because the conditions tested studied a variety of pore solution composition with several pH values; we tried to reproduce these values inside the pits in conditions of heavy corrosion (very acidic). The oxides found are those typically produced during iron dissolution and seem not the best route to study the corrosion process of steel in concrete; the electrochemical tests better characterize the corrosion stage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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9 pages, 2825 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Breakaway Time Delay Phenomenon in Isothermal Test with Zircaloy-4 under Oxygen Atmosphere at 1000 °C

by Gippeum Kim, Siwon Seo and Jaeyoung Lee

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(6), 2871; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12062871 - 10 Mar 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2059

Abstract

Zircaloy-4 isothermal oxidation tests were conducted at 1000 °C under an oxygen atmosphere with flow rates varying from 20 to 200 mL/min. In this research, a breakaway time delay phenomenon was discovered. The temperature of the atmosphere near the cladding was measured in [...] Read more.

Zircaloy-4 isothermal oxidation tests were conducted at 1000 °C under an oxygen atmosphere with flow rates varying from 20 to 200 mL/min. In this research, a breakaway time delay phenomenon was discovered. The temperature of the atmosphere near the cladding was measured in order to estimate the oxidation rate and identify the condition of the phenomenon. A sharp escalation in the cladding temperature was observed in the early stage of oxidation as the flow rate increased. In addition, macroscopic and microscopic observations were performed to identify the effects of initial temperature escalation. The results showed that the thickness of the dense columnar oxide increased in the oxide scale when the initial peak temperature exceeded 1050 °C. Based on these observations, it can be assumed that temperature escalation in the early stage can influence the thickness of dense oxides, and this in turn affects the oxidation behaviors, especially the breakaway time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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20 pages, 61639 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Microstructure in Welding Heat-Affected Zone of G115 Steel with the Different Content of Boron

by Zhongyi Chen, Dongxu Kou, Zhengzong Chen, Fan Yang, Yonglin Ma and Yiming Li

Materials 2022, 15(6), 2053; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15062053 - 10 Mar 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2709 | Correction

Abstract

Welding thermal simulation was performed to investigate the effects of boron content (0, 60, and 130 ppm), welding peak temperature (T_p), and cooling time from 800 to 500 °C (t_8/5) on the microstructure, carbide, subgrain, and microhardness [...] Read more.

Welding thermal simulation was performed to investigate the effects of boron content (0, 60, and 130 ppm), welding peak temperature (T_p), and cooling time from 800 to 500 °C (t_8/5) on the microstructure, carbide, subgrain, and microhardness of heat-affected zone (HAZ) in G115 steel. According to the experimental results, the microstructure of coarse-grained HAZ (CGHAZ), fine-grained HAZ (FGHAZ), inter-critical HAZ (ICHAZ), and sub-critically HAZ (SCHAZ) was martensite, martensite containing a small amount of undissolved carbide, martensite, and over-tempered martensite, tempered martensite, respectively. The presence of B element improved the thermal stability of M₂₃C₆ carbide, thereby resulting in a greater amount of undissolved carbides with a larger diameter in the materials with higher B content under the same T_p. Element B is effective in improving A_c1 and A_c3 for the material. Besides, compared with the material without and containing 60 ppm B, the A_c1 and A_c3 of the material containing 130 ppm B increased by 95 and 108 °C, 69 and 77 °C, respectively. Meanwhile, the FGHAZ area of the material containing 130 ppm B was significantly lower than the material without or containing 60 ppm B, indicating that element B can significantly reduce the formation range of FGHAZ. The alloy content in austenite of ICHAZ of materials without or containing 60 ppm B increased, compared with CGHAZ, its M_s and M_f declined by 50 and 7 °C, 46 and 7 °C, respectively. In contrast, the alloy content in austenite of the material with 130 ppm B content decreases, its M_s and M_f was 37 °C and 32 °C higher than CGHAZ, respectively. The microhardness of HAZ was ranked in descending order as CGHAZ, FGHAZ, ICHAZ, and SCHAZ. Differently, the microhardness of CGHAZ and FGHAZ showed an increasing trend with the rise of B content but exhibited a decreasing trend with the rise of t_8/5. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 4641 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Realization of Phase and Microstructure Control in Fe/Fe₂SiO₄-FeAl₂O₄ Metal–Ceramic by Alternative Microwave Susceptors

by Chenbo Gao, Pengfei Xu, Fei Ruan and Chenyu Yang

Materials 2022, 15(5), 1905; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051905 - 4 Mar 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1887

Abstract

This study provides a novel method to prepare metal–ceramic composites from magnetically selected iron ore using microwave heating. By introducing three different microwave susceptors (activated carbon, SiC, and a mixture of activated carbon and SiC) during the microwave process, effective control of the [...] Read more.

This study provides a novel method to prepare metal–ceramic composites from magnetically selected iron ore using microwave heating. By introducing three different microwave susceptors (activated carbon, SiC, and a mixture of activated carbon and SiC) during the microwave process, effective control of the ratio of metallic and ceramic phases was achieved easily. The effects of the three susceptors on the microstructure of the metal–ceramics and the related reaction mechanisms were also investigated in detail. The results show that the metal phase (Fe) and ceramic phase (Fe₂SiO₄, FeAl₂O₄) can be maintained, but the metal phase to ceramic phase changed significantly. In particular, the microstructures appeared as well-distributed nanosheet structures with diameters of ~400 nm and thicknesses of ~20 nm when SiC was used as the microwave susceptor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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18 pages, 9895 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Numerical Study on Friction and Wear Performance of Hot Extrusion Die Materials

by Leilei Zhao, Kecheng Zhou, Ding Tang, Huamiao Wang, Dayong Li and Yinghong Peng

Materials 2022, 15(5), 1798; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051798 - 27 Feb 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3376

Abstract

For the aluminium alloys produced by the hot extrusion process, the profile is shaped according to the bearing at the exit of the extrusion die. The tribological process has significant effects on the die service life, profile dimensional tolerances, and profile surface finish. [...] Read more.

For the aluminium alloys produced by the hot extrusion process, the profile is shaped according to the bearing at the exit of the extrusion die. The tribological process has significant effects on the die service life, profile dimensional tolerances, and profile surface finish. Recently, new technologies have been introduced to the hot extrusion die, such as cemented carbide insert die and surface coating. However, under hot extrusion working conditions, quantitative studies on their friction and wear performances are lacking. In this work, the friction and wear performances of three typical extrusion die materials, traditional hot tool steel (H13), cemented carbide (YG8), and chemical vapour deposition (CVD) coating, were studied. Macro and nano hardness tests, Pin-on-disk friction and wear tests, optical profiler and SEM observations, and experiments and simulations of hot extrusion were conducted. The results show that the coefficients of friction of CVD coatings and H13 hot work tool steel specimens were smaller under the hot extrusion condition than at room temperature. The wear mechanisms of H13, YG8, and CVD coatings at 500 °C are adhesion, abrasive, and fatigue, respectively. Moreover, the tribology results were validated by the extrusion experiments and the finite element analysis of hot extrusion. The conclusion of this manuscript is useful not only for the numerical simulation of the hot extrusion process but also for the surface finishing of the extrusion profile. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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31 pages, 19498 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Artificial Neural Networks for Predicting Plastic Anisotropy of Sheet Metals Based on Indentation Test

by Jiaping Xia, Chanhee Won, Hyunggyu Kim, Wonjoo Lee and Jonghun Yoon

Materials 2022, 15(5), 1714; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051714 - 24 Feb 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3135

Abstract

This paper mainly proposes two kinds of artificial neural network (ANN) models for predicting the plastic anisotropy properties of sheet metal using spherical indentation test, which minimizes measurement time, costs, and simplifies the process of obtaining the anisotropy properties than the conventional tensile [...] Read more.

This paper mainly proposes two kinds of artificial neural network (ANN) models for predicting the plastic anisotropy properties of sheet metal using spherical indentation test, which minimizes measurement time, costs, and simplifies the process of obtaining the anisotropy properties than the conventional tensile test. The proposed ANN models for predicting anisotropic properties can replace the traditional complex dimensionless analysis. Moreover, this paper is not limited to the prediction of yield strength anisotropy but also further accurately predicts the Lankford coefficient in different orientations. We newly construct an FE spherical indentation model, which is suitable for sheet metal in consideration of actual compliance. To obtain a large dataset for training the ANN, the constructed FE model is utilized to simulate pure and alloyed engineering metals with one thousand elastoplastic parameter conditions. We suggest the specific variables of the residual indentation mark as input parameters, also with the indentation load–depth curve. The profile of the residual indentation, including the height and length in different orientations, are used to analyze the anisotropic properties of the material. Experimental validations have been conducted with three different sheet alloys, TRIP1180 steel, zinc alloy, and aluminum alloy 6063-T6, comparing the proposed ANN model and the uniaxial tensile test. In addition, machine vision was used to efficiently analyze the residual indentation marks and automatically measure the indentation profiles in different orientations. The proposed ANN model exhibits remarkable performance in the prediction of the flow curves and Lankford coefficient of different orientations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 6652 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alloy Partitioning Effect on Strength and Toughness of κ-Carbide Strengthened Steels

by Daniel M. Field, Krista R. Limmer, Billy C. Hornbuckle, Dean T. Pierce, Ken E. Moore and Katherine M. Sebeck

Materials 2022, 15(5), 1670; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051670 - 23 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2122

Abstract

Alloy partitioning during heat treatment in a lightweight precipitation hardened steel was investigated using transmission electron microscopy and atom probe tomography. The mechanical properties are discussed as a function of the effect of solution treatment temperature and aging time, giving rise to variations [...] Read more.

Alloy partitioning during heat treatment in a lightweight precipitation hardened steel was investigated using transmission electron microscopy and atom probe tomography. The mechanical properties are discussed as a function of the effect of solution treatment temperature and aging time, giving rise to variations in chemical modulation. A wrought lightweight steel alloy with a nominal composition of Fe-30Mn-9Al-1Si-1C-0.5Mo (wt. %) was solution-treated between 1173–1273 K and aged at 773 K. Lower solution treatment temperatures retained a finer grain size and accelerated age hardening response that also produced an improved work hardening behavior with a tensile strength of −1460 MPa at 0.4 true strain. Atom probe tomography indicated these conditions also had reduced modulation in the Si and Al content due to the reduced aging time preventing silicon from diffusing out of the κ-carbide into the austenite. This work provides the framework for heat-treating lightweight, age hardenable steels with high strength and improved energy absorption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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20 pages, 18313 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical and Numerical Simulations for Predicting Distribution of Microstructural Features during Thermomechanical Processing of Steels

by Łukasz Poloczek, Roman Kuziak, Valeriy Pidvysots’kyy, Danuta Szeliga, Jan Kusiak and Maciej Pietrzyk

Materials 2022, 15(5), 1660; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051660 - 23 Feb 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2215

Abstract

The design of modern construction materials with heterogeneous microstructures requires a numerical model that can predict the distribution of microstructural features instead of average values. The accuracy and reliability of such models depend on the proper identification of the coefficients for a particular [...] Read more.

The design of modern construction materials with heterogeneous microstructures requires a numerical model that can predict the distribution of microstructural features instead of average values. The accuracy and reliability of such models depend on the proper identification of the coefficients for a particular material. This work was motivated by the need for advanced experimental data to identify stochastic material models. Extensive experiments were performed to supply data to identify a model of austenite microstructure evolution in steels during hot deformation and during the interpass times between deformations. Two sets of tests were performed. The first set involved hot compressions with a nominal strain of 1. The second set involved hot compressions with lower nominal strains, followed by holding at the deformation temperature for different times. Histograms of austenite grain size after each test were measured and used in the identification procedure. The stochastic model, which was developed elsewhere, was identified. Inverse analysis with the objective function based on the distance between the measured and calculated histograms was applied. Validation of the model was performed for the experiments, which were not used in the identification. The distance between the measured and calculated histograms was determined for each test using the Bhattacharyya metric and very low values were obtained. As a case study, the model with the optimal coefficients was applied to the simulation of the selected industrial hot-forming process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 5035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of the Biodegradable Component Addition to the Molding Sand on the Microstructure and Properties of Ductile Iron Castings

by Katarzyna Major-Gabryś, Małgorzata Hosadyna-Kondracka, Adelajda Polkowska and Małgorzata Warmuzek

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1552; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041552 - 18 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2280

Abstract

In this work, the results of the examinations of the effect of the mold material and mold technology on the microstructure and properties of the casts parts of ductile cast iron have been presented. Four different self-hardening molding sands based on fresh silica [...] Read more.

In this work, the results of the examinations of the effect of the mold material and mold technology on the microstructure and properties of the casts parts of ductile cast iron have been presented. Four different self-hardening molding sands based on fresh silica sand from Grudzen Las, with organic binders (no-bake process), were used to prepare molds for tested castings. A novelty is the use of molding sand with a two-component binder: furfuryl resin-polycaprolactone PCL biomaterial. The molds were poured with ductile iron according to standard PN-EN 1563:2018-10. The microstructure of the experimental castings was examined on metallographic cross-sections with PN-EN ISO 945-1:2019-09 standard. Observations were made in the area at the casting/mold boundary and in a zone approximately 10 mm from the surface of the casting with a light microscope. The tensile test at room temperature was conducted according to standard PN-EN ISO 6892-1:2016-09. Circular cross-section test pieces, machined from samples taken from castings, were used. In the present experiment, it was stated that interactions between the mold material of different compositions and liquid cast iron at the stage of casting solidification led to some evolution of casting’s microstructure in the superficial layer, such as a pearlite rim observed for acidic mold sand, a ferritic rim for alkaline sand, and graphite spheroids degeneration, especially spectacular for the acidic mold with polycaprolactone (PCL) addition. These microstructural effects may point to the interference of the direct chemical interactions between liquid alloy and the components released from the mold sand, such as sulfur and oxygen. Particularly noteworthy is the observation that the use of molding sand with furfuryl resin with the addition of biodegradable PCL material does not lead to an unfavorable modification of the mechanical properties in the casting. The samples taken from Casting No. 2, made on the acidic molding sand with the participation of biodegradable material, had an average strength of 672 MPa, the highest average strength UTS-among all tested molding sands. However, the elongation after fracture was 48% lower compared to the reference samples from Casting No. 1 from the sand without the addition of PCL. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 4581 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Alloying Element Mg on Na and Sr Modifying Al-7Si Hypoeutectic Alloy

by Chunfa Huang, Zhiguo Liu and Jianguo Li

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1537; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041537 - 18 Feb 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1860

Abstract

The influence of alloying element Mg on Na and Sr modifying Al-7Si hypoeutectic alloys was investigated. The residual content of Na and the morphology of modified eutectic silicon were characterized. It was found that the alloying element Mg had an enhanced effect on [...] Read more.

The influence of alloying element Mg on Na and Sr modifying Al-7Si hypoeutectic alloys was investigated. The residual content of Na and the morphology of modified eutectic silicon were characterized. It was found that the alloying element Mg had an enhanced effect on the uptake of sodium in the Al-7Si hypoeutectic alloy modified by the Na-contained modifier. Moreover, the morphology of eutectic silicon of the modified Al-7Si alloys was significantly different from that of Al-7Si-0.4Mg alloys in the present research. When the addition of the modifier is enough, both modifiers could entirely modify the eutectic silicon phase of Al-7Si alloys, while incompletely modified eutectic silicon was observed in both Na-modified and Sr-modified Al-7Si-0.4Mg alloy. It was observed that there was an adhering relationship between the partially modified eutectic silicon with Mg-rich phases. According to the results, it can be proposed that the addition of Mg will affect the solidification behavior of alloys, thereby, leading to the incomplete modification of eutectic silicon phases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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21 pages, 8507 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two Types of Wear Mechanisms Governing Transition between Mild and Severe Wear in Ti-6Al-4V Alloy during Dry Sliding at Temperatures of 20–250 °C

by Danhu Du, Wenbin Zhang and Jian An

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1416; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041416 - 14 Feb 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2196

Abstract

Dry wear characteristics and wear mechanisms governing mild-severe wear transition of Ti-6Al-4V alloy were studied during sliding against medium carbon chromium steel (50Cr) in an experimental temperature range of 20–250 °C. At each experimental temperature, wear rate was plotted against applied load, and [...] Read more.

Dry wear characteristics and wear mechanisms governing mild-severe wear transition of Ti-6Al-4V alloy were studied during sliding against medium carbon chromium steel (50Cr) in an experimental temperature range of 20–250 °C. At each experimental temperature, wear rate was plotted against applied load, and its variation was broken into two stages according to the difference of slope. Morphologies and contents of worn surfaces were examined by scanning electron microscope and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer, from which the two stages were identified to correspond to mild and severe wear, respectively. Two types of wear mechanisms that dominated mild-severe wear transition were found, i.e., breakdown of mechanically mixed layer at temperatures of 20 and 50 °C, and severe plastic deformation at temperatures of 100–250 °C. Microstructures and hardness were examined in the subsurfaces, from which severe plastic deformation-dominated mild-severe wear transition was identified to be caused by the softening arising from friction heating-induced dynamic recrystallization. A linear relation between mild-severe wear transition load and experimental temperature was discovered. The intercept of experimental temperature axis 450 °C was obtained by linearly fitting, and it was considered as a critical dynamic recrystallzation temperature for mild-severe wear transition within the temperature range of 100–250 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 8401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Cooling Rate on the Microstructure Evolution and Mechanical Properties of Ti-Microalloyed Steel Plates

by Xiaolin Li, Qian Li, Haozhe Li, Xiangyu Gao, Xiangtao Deng and Zhaodong Wang

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1385; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041385 - 13 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2588

Abstract

Ti-bearing microalloyed steel plates with a thickness of 40 mm were subjected to ultra-fast cooling (UFC) and traditional accelerate cooling after hot-rolling, aiming to investigate the effect of cooling rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties homogeneity, and thus obtain thick plates with [...] Read more.

Ti-bearing microalloyed steel plates with a thickness of 40 mm were subjected to ultra-fast cooling (UFC) and traditional accelerate cooling after hot-rolling, aiming to investigate the effect of cooling rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties homogeneity, and thus obtain thick plates with superior and homogeneous mechanical properties. Yield strength, tensile strength, and elongation were 642 MPa, 740 MPa, 19.2% and 592 MPa, 720 MPa and 16.7%, respectively, in the surface and mid-thickness of the steel with ultra-fast cooling, while in the steel with traditional accelerate cooling, 535 MPa, 645 MPa, 23.4% and 485 MPa, 608 MPa, 16.2% were obtained in the surface and mid-thickness of the plate. The yield strength has been greatly improved after UFC, for the refinement of grain and precipitates produced by UFC. In addition, the equivalent grain size and precipitates size in the thick plate with UFC are homogeneous in the thickness direction, leading to uniform mechanical properties. The crystallographic characteristics of different precipitates have been studied. The precipitates formed in the austenite deformation stage obey Kurdjumov–Sachs orientation relationship with the ferrite matrix, while the fine precipitates formed in the ferrite obey [112]_MC//[110]_α and

{(\bar{1} \bar{1} 1)}_{MC}

//

{(\bar{1} 12)}_{α}

orientation relationship with the ferrite matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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15 pages, 2854 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of a Non-Isothermal Numerical-Analytical Model to Determine the Kinetics of Austenite Formation in a Silicon Alloyed Steel

by Alexis Iván Gallegos-Pérez, Octavio Vázquez-Gómez, Martín Herrejón-Escutia, Héctor Javier Vergara-Hernández, Sixtos Antonio Arreola-Villa, Pedro Garnica-González and Edgar López-Martínez

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1376; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041376 - 13 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1685

Abstract

A non-isothermal transformation model was proposed to determine the austenite formation kinetics in a steel alloyed with 2.6% wt. Si by dilatometric analysis, considering that the nucleation mechanism does not change with the heating rate. From the dilatometric analysis, it was observed that [...] Read more.

A non-isothermal transformation model was proposed to determine the austenite formation kinetics in a steel alloyed with 2.6% wt. Si by dilatometric analysis, considering that the nucleation mechanism does not change with the heating rate. From the dilatometric analysis, it was observed that the austenite formation occurs in two stages; critical temperatures, degree and austenite formation rate were determined. The activation energies associated with each of the stages were obtained employing the Kissinger method (226.67 and 198.37 kJ·mol⁻¹ for the first and second stage) which was used in concert with the austenite formation rate in the non-isothermal model as a first approximation, with acceptable results in the second stage, but not in the first due to the activation energies magnitude. Then, the activation energies were adjusted by minimizing the minimal squares error between estimated and experimental austenite formation degree, obtaining values of 158.50 kJ·mol⁻¹ for the first and 165.50 kJ·mol⁻¹ for the second stage. These values are consistent with those reported for the diffusion of carbon in austenite-FCC in silicon steels. With these activation energies it was possible to predict the austenite formation degree with a better level of convergence when implementing the non-isothermal model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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24 pages, 24823 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intermetallics Formation during Solidification of Al-Si-Cu-Mg Cast Alloys

by Adel M. A. Mohamed, Ehab Samuel, Yasser Zedan, Agnes M. Samuel, Herbert W. Doty and Fawzy H. Samuel

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1335; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041335 - 11 Feb 2022

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3080

Abstract

The present study was undertaken to examine the effect of iron, manganese, copper and magnesium on the microstructural characteristics of Al-11%Si-2%Cu-Mg-based alloy referred to as 396 under different working conditions. The results show that strontium (Sr) has high affinity to react with magnesium [...] Read more.

The present study was undertaken to examine the effect of iron, manganese, copper and magnesium on the microstructural characteristics of Al-11%Si-2%Cu-Mg-based alloy referred to as 396 under different working conditions. The results show that strontium (Sr) has high affinity to react with magnesium (Mg), resulting in reduced effectiveness as eutectic silicon modifier or age hardening agent. In addition, Sr alters the sequence of the precipitation of the α-AlFeMnSi phase from post-eutectic to pro-eutectic which would harden the soft α-Aluminum matrix. The mechanism is still under investigation. The interactions between iron (Fe) and Mg and Sr-Mg result in the formation of serval dissolvable intermetallics during the solutionizing treatment such as β-AlFeSi, π-AlFeMgSi and Q-AlMgSiCu phases. The study also emphasizes the role of modification and grain refining as well as intermetallics in porosity formation and hardness of samples aged in the temperature range 155–240 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 1916 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reducing the γ′-Particle Size in CMSX-4 for Membrane Development

by Janik Marius Lück and Joachim Rösler

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1320; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041320 - 10 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1715

Abstract

Colloidal emulsions for lipophilic drugs can be fabricated using premix membrane emulsification. The state of the art is the application of membranes made from, for example, polycarbonate or polyester, which, however, are prone to fouling and cause waste, due to the low number [...] Read more.

Colloidal emulsions for lipophilic drugs can be fabricated using premix membrane emulsification. The state of the art is the application of membranes made from, for example, polycarbonate or polyester, which, however, are prone to fouling and cause waste, due to the low number of cycles. With the use of metallic membranes made from the nickel based single crystalline superalloy CMSX-4, these key disadvantages are eliminated. However, instead, the pore size and the resulting droplet size distribution need to be adjusted and improved. This can be realized by tailoring the size of the γ′-particles, which is controllable by the time and temperature used during precipitation heat treatment and the quenching method after homogenization heat treatment. Therefore, we utilized different heat treatment protocols, varying the cooling rate (water quenching and air cooling) after homogenization heat treatment and the holding time and temperature during precipitation heat treatment. Then, we investigated the γ/γ′-microstructure, including the γ′-morphology and γ′-particle size. We show that water quenching has a significant impact on the γ/γ′-microstructure and often leads to irregular-shaped and poorly aligned γ′-particles after precipitation heat treatment. In comparison, air cooling, followed by a subsequent precipitation heat treatment, results in well-aligned and cubic shaped γ′-particles and is, therefore, favorable for membrane fabrication. A reduction in precipitation temperature leads to morphology changes to the γ′-particles. A reduction of the holding time during precipitation heat treatment diminishes the γ′-particle growth, resulting in smaller γ′-particles. Additionally, a suitable heat treatment protocol for membrane fabrication was identified with a γ′-edge length of 224 ± 52 nm and well-aligned, cubic shaped γ′-particles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 57368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inhibition of Carbide Growth by Sr in High-Alloyed White Cast Iron

by Malwina Dojka and Rafał Dojka

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1317; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041317 - 10 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2005

Abstract

Chromium cast irons have gained a well-settled position among wear-resistant materials where a low manufacturing cost is one of the key factors. The wear properties of these alloys are commonly improved by the addition of carbide-forming inoculating elements such as Ti, V, B, [...] Read more.

Chromium cast irons have gained a well-settled position among wear-resistant materials where a low manufacturing cost is one of the key factors. The wear properties of these alloys are commonly improved by the addition of carbide-forming inoculating elements such as Ti, V, B, etc., allowing the formation of underlays for the precipitation of both M₇C₃ carbides and austenite. On the other hand, Sr may work as a surface-active element that adsorbs on the surface of the growing crystal, inhibiting its growth. This mechanism may support the M₇C₃ nucleation process. The experiment was conducted on near-eutectic chromium cast irons with 20% of Cr and 2.5–3% of C. Different amounts of strontium were used as the microstructure modifier. The improvement of carbides’ stereological parameters and collocation resulted in the improvement in functional properties—wear resistance and impact strength without a significant increase in hardness as well as a decrease in carbide phase. Two types of wear studies with a modified pin-on-disc method and tests in reciprocating motion of samples in the metal-mineral system were performed. The results showed that addition modification with Sr can increase the impact strength of the alloy. EDS analysis of the samples provided results similar to hypoeutectic Al-Si alloys modified with strontium. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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19 pages, 13661 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Re-Examination of the Microstructural Evolution in Undercooled Co-18.5at.%B Eutectic Alloy

by Yixuan He, Yuhao Wu, Fan Bu, Yiyuan Zhang, Yifan Zhang, Bo Hei, Jianbao Zhang and Haifeng Wang

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1315; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041315 - 10 Feb 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2242

Abstract

The undercooling (∆T) dependencies of the solidification pathways, microstructural evolution, and recalescence behaviors of undercooled Co-18.5at.%B eutectic alloys were systematically explored. Up to four possible solidification pathways were identified: (1) A lamellar eutectic structure consisting of the FCC–Co and Co₃ [...] Read more.

The undercooling (∆T) dependencies of the solidification pathways, microstructural evolution, and recalescence behaviors of undercooled Co-18.5at.%B eutectic alloys were systematically explored. Up to four possible solidification pathways were identified: (1) A lamellar eutectic structure consisting of the FCC–Co and Co₃B phase forms, with extremely low ΔT; (2) The FCC–Co phase primarily forms, followed by the eutectic growth of the FCC–Co and Co₂B phases when ΔT < 100 K; (3) As the ΔT increases further, the FCC–Co phase primarily forms, followed by the metastable Co₂₃B₆ phase with the trace of an FCC–Co and Co₂₃B₆ eutectic; (4) When the ΔT increases to 277 K, the FCC–Co phase primarily forms, followed by an FCC–Co and Co₃B eutectic, which is similar in composition to the microstructure formed with low ΔT. The mechanisms of the microstructural evolution and the phase selection are interpreted on the basis of the composition segregation, the skewed coupled zone, the strain-induced transformation, and the solute trapping. Moreover, the prenucleation of the primary FCC–Co phase was also detected from an analysis of the different recalescence behaviors. The present work not only enriches our knowledge about the phase selection behavior in the undercooled Co–B system, but also provides us with guidance for controlling the microstructures and properties practically. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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10 pages, 6786 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High Temperature Tensile Fracture Behavior of Copper-Containing Austenitic Antibacterial Stainless Steel

by Jiali Qian, Haijuan Wang, Jing Li and Rongjun Xu

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1297; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041297 - 10 Feb 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2111

Abstract

The mechanical properties and deformation microstructure of cast 304 Cu-containing austenitic stainless steel at 10⁻³/s strain rate in the range of 700~1200 °C were studied by Gleeble thermal simulator, metallographic microscope and scanning electron microscope. The results showed that the thermoplasticity [...] Read more.

The mechanical properties and deformation microstructure of cast 304 Cu-containing austenitic stainless steel at 10⁻³/s strain rate in the range of 700~1200 °C were studied by Gleeble thermal simulator, metallographic microscope and scanning electron microscope. The results showed that the thermoplasticity of 304 Cu-containing austenitic stainless steel was higher than 60% when the temperature was higher than 1000 °C, and the tensile strength as a whole decreased with the increase in temperature. During the tensile process, the morphology and content of ferrite in the test steel were the main factors affecting the high-temperature thermoplastic of the billet. The inclusions near the fracture and the existence of ferrite at the grain boundary greatly affected the formation of microcracks and holes and the fracture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 2839 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Solidification Rate on the Corrosion Resistance of Die-Cast AZ91 Magnesium Alloy

by Kwangmin Choi, Jaehyuck Shin and Heon Kang

Materials 2022, 15(3), 1259; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031259 - 8 Feb 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2206

Abstract

To increase the utilization of die-cast Mg alloys with various shapes in a variety of environments, the corrosion behaviors of commercial die-cast Mg alloys with different thicknesses were investigated in neutral and alkali solutions at ambient temperature. A decrease in the thickness of [...] Read more.

To increase the utilization of die-cast Mg alloys with various shapes in a variety of environments, the corrosion behaviors of commercial die-cast Mg alloys with different thicknesses were investigated in neutral and alkali solutions at ambient temperature. A decrease in the thickness of a specimen leads to an increase in cooling and solidification rates, which, in turn, decreases the size of the eutectic β phases and the interphase distance, thus improving the hardness of the specimen. Specimens with relatively large β phases were more corroded under neutral conditions due to severe galvanic corrosion at the interface between α-Mg and the β phases, whereas they were protected by passivation films formed on the substrate in the alkaline solution. However, in the case of the alloy with thin thickness and high solidification rate, the fine β phases improved corrosion resistance by forming a net structure that acted as a barrier to corrosion propagation of the α matrix. These results suggest that the size and distribution of the eutectic phases should be appropriately controlled, depending on the environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 65058 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Low- and Medium-Carbon Si-Rich Low-Alloy Steels Processed by Austemping after Intercritical Annealing

by Xin Jia, Ting Zhao, Lin Wang, Xiaowen Sun, Yuefeng Wang and Tiansheng Wang

Materials 2022, 15(3), 1178; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031178 - 3 Feb 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2560

Abstract

In the present paper, the designed thermomechanical process was applied to prepare ferrite/bainite multiphase microstructures in Si-rich low-alloy steel with a carbon content of 0.33 wt.% (0.33C) and 0.21 wt.% (0.21C). The microstructures were analyzed by scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope, and [...] Read more.

In the present paper, the designed thermomechanical process was applied to prepare ferrite/bainite multiphase microstructures in Si-rich low-alloy steel with a carbon content of 0.33 wt.% (0.33C) and 0.21 wt.% (0.21C). The microstructures were analyzed by scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope, and electron backscatter diffraction, and the mechanical properties (tensile and impact properties) were tested. The results showed that, on the premise of obtaining 15 vol.% ferrite in both steels, the ferrite grains in the 0.33C steel were polygonal with an average grain size of 2.2 μm, recrystallized more completely. However, the ferrite grains in the 0.21C steel were mainly long strip-shaped with a width of 2–4 μm, and the recrystallization degree was poor. In addition, upon increasing the austempering temperature, bainite ferrite laths were formed in the 0.33C steel, and the thickness was in the range of 81–123 nm. The morphology of bainite ferrite in the 0.21C steel gradually changed from lath to granular. Upon increasing the austempering temperature, the tensile strength and yield strength of both steels increased and the elongation decreased slightly. The impact energy of the two steels showed different trends upon increasing the austempering temperature, in which the impact energy of the 0.33C steel increased, while that of the 0.21C steel decreased. This is due to the difference size of the martensite-austenite constituents in the two steels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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24 pages, 5103 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis and Characterization of High-Purity Mesoporous Alumina with Excellent Adsorption Capacity for Congo Red

by Zhonglin Li, Ding Wang, Fengcheng Lv, Junxue Chen, Chengzhi Wu, Yuping Li, Jialong Shen and Yibing Li

Materials 2022, 15(3), 970; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030970 - 27 Jan 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3107

Abstract

We explore a more concise process for the preparation of high-purity alumina and to address the problem of some conventional micro- and nano-adsorbents having difficulty in exposing their adsorption sites to target pollutants in solution due to the heavy aggregation of the adsorbent, [...] Read more.

We explore a more concise process for the preparation of high-purity alumina and to address the problem of some conventional micro- and nano-adsorbents having difficulty in exposing their adsorption sites to target pollutants in solution due to the heavy aggregation of the adsorbent, which confers poor adsorption properties. The methods of using gamma-phase high-purity mesoporous alumina (HPMA), with its excellent adsorption properties and high adsorption rates of Congo Red, and of using lower-cost industrial aluminum hydroxide by direct aging and ammonium salt substitution were successfully employed. The results showed that the purity of HPMA was as high as 99.9661% and the total removal rate of impurities was 98.87%, a consequence of achieving a large specific surface area of 312.43 m² g⁻¹, a pore volume of 0.55 cm³ g⁻¹, and an average pore diameter of 3.8 nm. The adsorption process was carried out at 25 °C, the concentration of Congo Red (CR) dye was fixed at 250 mg L⁻¹ and the amount of adsorbent used was 100 mg. The HPMA sample exhibited an extremely fast adsorption rate in the first 10 min, with adsorption amounts up to 476.34 mg g⁻¹ and adsorption efficiencies of 96.27%. The adsorption equilibrium was reached in about 60 min, at which time the adsorbed amount was 492.19 mg g⁻¹ and the dye removal rate was as high as 98.44%. One-hundred milligrams of adsorbent were weighed and dispersed in 200-mL CR solutions with mass concentrations ranging from 50–1750 mg L⁻¹ to study the adsorption isotherms. This revealed that the saturation adsorption capacity of the produced HPMA was 1984.64 mg g⁻¹. Furthermore, the process of adsorbing Congo Red in the synthesized product was consistent with a pseudo-second order model and the Langmiur model. It is expected that this method of producing HPMA will provide a productive, easy and efficient means of treating toxic dyes in industrial wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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27 pages, 7458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Intermetallics and Drill Materials on the Machinability of Al-Si Cast Alloys

by Yasser Zedan, Guillermo H. Garza-Elizondo, Mahmoud Tash, Agnes M. Samuel, Herbert W. Doty, Victor Songmene and Fawzy Hosny Samuel

Materials 2022, 15(3), 916; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030916 - 25 Jan 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2399

Abstract

The present study was conducted on the machinability of 396 alloy (containing approximately 11% Si) and B319.2 alloy mainly to emphasize the effects of Fe-intermetallics, i.e., α-Fe, β-Fe, and sludge. The results demonstrate that the presence of sludge in the form [...] Read more.

The present study was conducted on the machinability of 396 alloy (containing approximately 11% Si) and B319.2 alloy mainly to emphasize the effects of Fe-intermetallics, i.e., α-Fe, β-Fe, and sludge. The results demonstrate that the presence of sludge in the form of hard spots has a significant effect on cutting forces and tool life, in that it decreases drill life by 50% compared to the base alloy. The formation of the α-Fe phase in the M1 base alloy has a beneficial effect on tool life in that this alloy produces the highest number of holes drilled compared to alloys containing sludge or β-Fe; this result may be explained by the fact that the formation of the α-Fe intermetallic, with its rounded Chinese script morphology and its presence within α-Al dendrites, is expected to improve matrix homogeneity via hardening of the soft α-Al dendrites. Increasing the Fe-content from 0.5% to 1% in the 396-T6 alloy containing 0.5% Mn produces a distinct improvement in alloy machinability in terms of cutting force and tool life. The addition of Fe and/or Mn appears to have no discernible effect on the build-up edge area (BUE) and chip shape. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 3474 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Vacuum Heat Treatment on the Element Diffusion Behavior and Corrosion Resistance of Al₂O₃-3wt.%TiO₂ Coating of Q235 Steel

by Yulin Ma, Guang Liu, Xinyu Wang, Xupeng Zhang, Jun Zhang and Jun Cheng

Materials 2022, 15(3), 848; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030848 - 23 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2835

Abstract

In this study, we address the effect of vacuum heat treatment on the morphology of Al₂O₃-3wt.%TiO₂ coating, element diffusion behavior, coating hardness, and corrosion resistance. The pores, cracks, and non-liquefied particles on the as-heat treated coating surface of [...] Read more.

In this study, we address the effect of vacuum heat treatment on the morphology of Al₂O₃-3wt.%TiO₂ coating, element diffusion behavior, coating hardness, and corrosion resistance. The pores, cracks, and non-liquefied particles on the as-heat treated coating surface of the vacuum-heat-treated coating were observed and compared with the as-sprayed coating using a scanning electron microscope. The diffusion behavior of the elements in the coating was demonstrated by using a line scanning of a cross-section of the coating. Hardness and corrosion-resistance test results were used to judge the effect of a vacuum heat treatment on the coating. The research results show that compared with atmospheric heat treatment, the vacuum heat treatment had less effect on the pores, cracks, and non-liquefied particles on the surface of the coating. However, in the absence of new oxide formation, the pores and cracks in the cross-section of the coating were significantly improved by the vacuum heat treatment. The surface hardness and corrosion resistance of the coating were significantly improved. The crack defects were eliminated, and the uniformity of TiO₂ distribution was improved, which are the main factors that improved the coating performance after vacuum heat treatment. The combination of the coating and the substrate is strengthened, and an Al₂O₃ and TiO₂ interdiffusion zone is formed when the coating undergoes vacuum heat treatment, which is the main mechanism improving the performance of the AT3 coating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 3326 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of the Effects of Scanning Strategies on the Aluminum Evaporation of Titanium Alloy in the Electron Beam Cold Hearth Melting Process

by Van-Doi Truong, Yong-Taek Hyun, Jong Woo Won, Wonjoo Lee and Jonghun Yoon

Materials 2022, 15(3), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030820 - 21 Jan 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3134

Abstract

In the production of titanium alloy, the electron beam cold hearth melting (EBCHM) process is commonly used due to its effectiveness and the high quality of the end product. However, its main drawback is the significant loss of elements such as aluminum (Al) [...] Read more.

In the production of titanium alloy, the electron beam cold hearth melting (EBCHM) process is commonly used due to its effectiveness and the high quality of the end product. However, its main drawback is the significant loss of elements such as aluminum (Al) due to evaporation under the vacuum environment. Numerical coupled thermal-flow models were here developed to investigate the effects of scanning strategies on Al loss in a titanium alloy during EBCHM. The validation model was successful in comparison with previously published experimental data. The Al mass fraction results at the outlet of the water-cooled hearth were strongly influenced by changes in the applied scanning strategies. The results indicated that the Al mass fraction loss could be reduced by using the full-hearth scanning strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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10 pages, 2809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Twinning on Angle-Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy Analysis of Ni_49.7Mn_29.1Ga_21.2(100) Heusler Alloy

by Vladimír Cháb, Václav Drchal, František Máca, Josef Kudrnovský, Stanislav Cichoň, Ján Lančok and Oleg Heczko

Materials 2022, 15(3), 717; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15030717 - 18 Jan 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1977

Abstract

To explain the observed features of k-space photoelectron images taken on off-stoichiometric Heusler Ni₄₉.₇Mn₂₉.₁Ga₂₁.₂ single-crystals in the cubic austenitic and pseudotetragonal martensitic phases, the images were simulated theoretically. Despite the moderate structural [...] Read more.

To explain the observed features of k-space photoelectron images taken on off-stoichiometric Heusler Ni₄₉.₇Mn₂₉.₁Ga₂₁.₂ single-crystals in the cubic austenitic and pseudotetragonal martensitic phases, the images were simulated theoretically. Despite the moderate structural difference of both phases, there is large difference in photoemission spectra. Analysis of the final states’ structure, matrix elements, and interface barrier scattering was performed to interpret discrepancies between the external photoemission of the austenite and martensite. The missing signal at the surface-normal emission of the martensitic phase is, ultimately, explained by repeated scatterings of escaping electrons on the interfaces between nanotwins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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9 pages, 69262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Effect of La and TiB₂ Particles on Grain Refinement in Aluminum Alloy

by Lili Zhang, Yan Song, Linjie Yang, Jiuzhou Zhao, Jie He and Hongxiang Jiang

Materials 2022, 15(2), 600; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15020600 - 13 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2092

Abstract

Synergistic effect of TiB₂ (in form of Al-5Ti-1B) and La on grain refining results in Al-2Cu alloy was investigated. α-Al grains are significantly refined by Al-5Ti-1B. When trace La is added to the melt, further refinement is exhibited. Average grain size and [...] Read more.

Synergistic effect of TiB₂ (in form of Al-5Ti-1B) and La on grain refining results in Al-2Cu alloy was investigated. α-Al grains are significantly refined by Al-5Ti-1B. When trace La is added to the melt, further refinement is exhibited. Average grain size and nucleation undercooling of α-Al reduce first and then almost remain unchanged with La addition. Satisfactory grain refining result achieves when La addition level reaches 600 ppm. When more than 600 ppm La is added to the melt, La-rich particles form and the effect of solute La left in matrix on the microstructure almost no longer changes. Theoretical calculation results demonstrate that solute La segregates to Al melt/TiB₂ particles interface along with Ti and Cu prior to α-Al nucleation and the synergistic effect of La and TiB₂ particles on grain refinement mainly attributes to the enhancement in the potency of TiB₂ particles to heterogeneously nucleate α-Al by trace La addition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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18 pages, 4835 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of the Loading Conditions and the Building Directions on the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical β-Titanium Alloy Produced In Situ by Laser-Based Powder Bed Fusion

by Housseme Ben Boubaker, Pascal Laheurte, Gael Le Coz, Seyyed-Saeid Biriaie, Paul Didier, Paul Lohmuller and Abdelhadi Moufki

Materials 2022, 15(2), 509; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15020509 - 10 Jan 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2447

Abstract

In order to simulate micromachining of Ti-Nb medical devices produced in situ by selective laser melting, it is necessary to use constitutive models that allow one to reproduce accurately the material behavior under extreme loading conditions. The identification of these models is often [...] Read more.

In order to simulate micromachining of Ti-Nb medical devices produced in situ by selective laser melting, it is necessary to use constitutive models that allow one to reproduce accurately the material behavior under extreme loading conditions. The identification of these models is often performed using experimental tension or compression data. In this work, compression tests are conducted to investigate the impact of the loading conditions and the laser-based powder bed fusion (LB-PBF) building directions on the mechanical behavior of

β

-Ti42Nb alloy. Compression tests are performed under two strain rates (1 s

^{- 1}

and 10 s

^{- 1}

) and four temperatures (298 K, 673 K, 873 K and 1073 K). Two LB-PBF building directions are used for manufacturing the compression specimens. Therefore, different metallographic analyses (i.e., optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and X-ray diffraction) have been carried out on the deformed specimens to gain insight into the impact of the loading conditions on microstucture alterations. According to the results, whatever the loading conditions are, specimens manufactured with a building direction of 45

^{\circ}

exhibit higher flow stress than those produced with a building direction of 90

^{\circ}

, highlighting the anisotropy of the as-LB-PBFed alloy. Additionally, the deformed alloy exhibits at room temperature a yielding strength of 1180 ± 40 MPa and a micro-hardness of 310 ± 7 HV

_{0.1}

. Experimental observations demonstrated two strain localization modes: a highly deformed region corresponding to the localization of the plastic deformation in the central region of specimens and perpendicular to the compression direction and an adiabatic shear band oriented with an angle of ±45 with respect to same direction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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24 pages, 64228 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Trace Elements on the Microstructural and Machinability Characteristics of Al–Si–Cu–Mg Castings

by Yasser Zedan, Agnes M. Samuel, Herbert W. Doty, Victor Songmene and Fawzy H. Samuel

Materials 2022, 15(1), 377; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010377 - 5 Jan 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2323

Abstract

This study was undertaken to emphasize the influence of Sn and Bi addition on the machinability of Sr-modified, grain-refined, and heat-treated Al–Si B319 and 396 alloys. Drilling and tapping tests were conducted to examine the cutting forces, tool life, tool wear, built-up edge [...] Read more.

This study was undertaken to emphasize the influence of Sn and Bi addition on the machinability of Sr-modified, grain-refined, and heat-treated Al–Si B319 and 396 alloys. Drilling and tapping tests were conducted to examine the cutting forces, tool life, tool wear, built-up edge evolution, and chip shape. Microstructures were examined using optical and electron microscopy. Drilling test results show that the B319.2 alloy with 0.15%Sn yields the longest drill life, i.e., twice that of the B319.2 alloy containing 0.5%Bi, and one-and-a-half times that of the B319.2 alloy containing 0.15%Sn + 0.5%Bi. The presence of 0.5%Bi in the B319.2 alloy causes a deterioration of drill life (cf., 1101 holes with 2100 holes drilled in the B319.2 alloy containing 0.15%Sn). The α-Fe phase in the 396 alloy produces the highest number of holes drilled compared with alloys containing sludge or β-Fe. The presence of sludge decreases the drill life by 50%. Built-up edge (BUE) measurements and optical photographs show little change in the BUE width for different numbers of holes except for the B319.2 alloy containing 0.5%Bi, which shows a slightly lower width (0.166 mm) compared with that containing 0.15% Sn (0.184 mm) or 0.15%Sn + 0.5%Bi (0.170 mm). Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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10 pages, 2562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of Pitting-Corrosion Resistance of Ultrafine-Grained 7475 Al Alloy by Aging

by Ewa Ura-Bińczyk

Materials 2022, 15(1), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010360 - 4 Jan 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2491

Abstract

The effect of aging on the resistance to pitting corrosion of ultrafine-grained 7475 aluminium (Al) alloy processed by hydrostatic extrusion (HE) is studied. Differences in the microstructure were investigated using secondary electron (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Corrosion tests were performed in [...] Read more.

The effect of aging on the resistance to pitting corrosion of ultrafine-grained 7475 aluminium (Al) alloy processed by hydrostatic extrusion (HE) is studied. Differences in the microstructure were investigated using secondary electron (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Corrosion tests were performed in 0.1 M NaCl, and characterization of corroded surface was performed. The results of this work show that the pitting susceptibility of ultra-fine grained 7475Al is related to the distribution of MgZn₂ precipitates. After HE, the formation of An ultrafine-grained microstructure at the grain boundaries of ultrafine grains is observed, while subsequent aging results in the formation of MgZn₂ precipitates in the grain interior. Grain refinement increases susceptibility to localized attack, while the subsequent aging improves the overall corrosion resistance and limits the propagation of corrosion attack. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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20 pages, 5961 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tribological Properties of Solid Solution Strengthened Laser Cladded NiCrBSi/WC-12Co Metal Matrix Composite Coatings

by Zoran Bergant, Barbara Šetina Batič, Imre Felde, Roman Šturm and Marko Sedlaček

Materials 2022, 15(1), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010342 - 4 Jan 2022

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3956

Abstract

NiCrBSi, WC-12Co and NiCrBSi with 30, 40 and 50 wt.% WC-12Co coatings were produced on low carbon steel by laser cladding with an Nd:YAG laser with a multi-jet coaxial cladding-nozzle. The microstructure properties after WC-12Co alloying were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), [...] Read more.

NiCrBSi, WC-12Co and NiCrBSi with 30, 40 and 50 wt.% WC-12Co coatings were produced on low carbon steel by laser cladding with an Nd:YAG laser with a multi-jet coaxial cladding-nozzle. The microstructure properties after WC-12Co alloying were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and Vickers hardness tests. The resulting microstructures consisted of a γ-Ni and Ni₃B matrix, strengthened with Co and W, Ni₃Si, CrB, Cr₇C3, Cr₂₃C₆, WC/W₂C phases. In coatings with 30, 40 and 50 wt.% WC-12Co, a solid solution, strengthened multi-matrix NiCrWCo phase formed, which yielded a higher matrix hardness. Wear tests that monitored the friction coefficients were performed with a tribometer that contained a ball-on-disc configuration, Al₂O₃ counter-body and reciprocal sliding mode at room temperature. The major wear mode on the NiCrBSi coatings without the WC-12Co was adhesive with a high wear rate and visible material loss by flaking, delamination and micro-ploughing. The addition of WC-12Co to the NiCrBSi coating significantly increased the wear resistance and changed the major wear mechanism from adhesion to three-body abrasion and fatigue wear. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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18 pages, 86728 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study for Performance Increase of a Extractor Device by Steel Replacement of AISI 304 Steel for AISI 420 Steel

by Francisco Alves de Lima Júnior, Ricardo Artur Sanguinetti Ferreira and Rômulo Rocha de Araújo Lima

Materials 2022, 15(1), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010280 - 30 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2361

Abstract

The performance of an extractor device used in the food industry was studied from the development of structural analysis through computational modeling based on finite elements. These analyses considered the mechanical properties of AISI 304 and 420 stainless steels, in addition to the [...] Read more.

The performance of an extractor device used in the food industry was studied from the development of structural analysis through computational modeling based on finite elements. These analyses considered the mechanical properties of AISI 304 and 420 stainless steels, in addition to the tribological aspects of the device in operation. Initially, uniaxial tensile tests were carried out according to the ABNT NBR 6892 standard and hardness tests were carried out according to ASTM E384, E92, and E18 standards. From the mechanical tests, structural analyses were carried out numerically on each of the components of the extractor device. After analyzing all the components, the device was assembled to be tested in operation. The wear and service life of devices made from these two materials were evaluated. From this study, it could be concluded that the extractor device made with AISI 420 stainless steel, in addition to having a lower manufacturing cost, suffered less wear and had an increase in service life of up to 650% compared to the extractor device made with steel stainless steel AISI 304. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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19 pages, 8978 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of the Stretch Flangeabitity of High-Strength Bainitic Steel: The Significance of Variant Pairs

by Zhiquan Wang, Zifeng Guo, Chengjia Shang, Bin Chen and Yajun Hui

Materials 2022, 15(1), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010276 - 30 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2581

Abstract

Variant pairs have an indispensable function on mechanical properties such as low impact toughness. Therefore, it was assumed that they would also affect the HER (Hole Expansion Ratio, an indicator to evaluate stretch flanging performance). To clarify this, a comprehensive analysis of the [...] Read more.

Variant pairs have an indispensable function on mechanical properties such as low impact toughness. Therefore, it was assumed that they would also affect the HER (Hole Expansion Ratio, an indicator to evaluate stretch flanging performance). To clarify this, a comprehensive analysis of the common influential factors in an 800 MPa grade low carbon micro-alloyed steel, i.e., the retained austenite, the M/A (Martensite/Austenite) island, the titanium precipitations, the grain diameter, the density of high angle grain boundaries and the textures, was first conducted. It was found that they did not match well with the HER, suggesting that they were not the governing factor for HER in this steel. However, the dominating crystallography groups and the variant pairing results indicated that they fitted well with the HER. In the samples with high HERs, the CP (Close Packed) groups dominated the transformation, wherein one individual CP group consisted of two or more Bain groups, whereas it evolved into the domination of joint CP groups and Bain groups for the low HER sample. Further analysis on the variant pairing features indicated that a correlation occurred between the HER and the high angle variant pairs. In the steels with high HERs, high-angle variant pairs of V1/V2, V1/V3 that transformed from the same CP group, particularly of V1/V2 pair, were mostly generated. They turned to V1/V9, V1/V10, V1/V12, V1/V15, V1/V17, and V1/V18 pairs from differential CP groups, especially the V1/V12 and V1/V15 pair for low-HER steel. This result showed that V1/V2, V1/V12, and V1/V15 might have accounted most for the HER in this steel. The underlying reason was that the V1/V2 pair was specialized in supplying a slip passage for dislocation transmission across a grain boundary with little resistance, whereas the dislocation transmission ability for V1/V12 and V1/V15 pair was particularly poor. Thus, to efficiently enhance the HER, one should regulate the variant pairs by augmenting the V1/V2 fraction and suppressing the formation of the V1/V12 and V1/V15 pair. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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30 pages, 5791 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review: Laser Welding of Dissimilar Materials (Al/Fe, Al/Ti, Al/Cu)—Methods and Techniques, Microstructure and Properties

by Sergey Kuryntsev

Materials 2022, 15(1), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010122 - 24 Dec 2021

Cited by 67 | Viewed by 9617

Abstract

Modern structural engineering is impossible without the use of materials and structures with high strength and low specific weight. This work carries out a quantitative and qualitative analysis of articles for 2016–2021 on the topic of welding of dissimilar alloys. It is found [...] Read more.

Modern structural engineering is impossible without the use of materials and structures with high strength and low specific weight. This work carries out a quantitative and qualitative analysis of articles for 2016–2021 on the topic of welding of dissimilar alloys. It is found that laser welding is most widely used for such metal pairs as Al/Fe, Al/Ti, and Al/Cu. The paper analyzes the influence of the basic techniques, methods, and means of laser welding of Al/Fe, Al/Ti, and Al/Cu on the mechanical properties and thickness of the intermetallic compound (IMC). When welding the lap joint or spike T-joint configuration of Al/Fe, it is preferable to melt the steel, which will be heated or melted, by the laser beam, and through thermal conduction, it will heat the aluminum. When welding the butt-welded joint of Al/Fe, the most preferable is to melt the aluminum by the laser beam (150–160 MPa). When welding the butt-welded joint of Al/Ti, it is possible to obtain the minimum IMC and maximum mechanical properties by offsetting the laser beam to aluminum. Whereas when the laser beam is offset to a titanium alloy, the mechanical properties are 40–50% lower than when the laser beam is offset to an aluminum alloy. When lap welding the Al/Cu joint, under the impact of the laser beam on the aluminum, using defocusing or wobbling (oscillation) of a laser beam, it is possible to increase the contact area of electrical conductivity with the tensile shear strength of 95–128 MPa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 3901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Numerical Study of Surface Roughness of Thin Brass Wire Processed by Different Dieless Drawing Processes

by Andrij Milenin, Mirosław Wróbel, Piotr Kustra and Jiří Němeček

Materials 2022, 15(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010035 - 21 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2648

Abstract

This paper examines the surface roughness of a thin brass wire (140–200 microns in diameter) after two dieless drawing (DD) processes, i.e., conventional dieless drawing (CDD) and incremental dieless drawing (IDD). In incremental dieless drawing, small increments in deformation were applied in several [...] Read more.

This paper examines the surface roughness of a thin brass wire (140–200 microns in diameter) after two dieless drawing (DD) processes, i.e., conventional dieless drawing (CDD) and incremental dieless drawing (IDD). In incremental dieless drawing, small increments in deformation were applied in several passes. It has been proven that the IDD process not only has a greater efficiency but also enables obtaining a wire with significantly lower surface roughness. The explanation for these effects is based on the results of the numerical modeling of both compared processes. The developed numerical model takes into consideration the initial roughness of the wire surface, shape and dimensions of grains, and their diversified mechanical properties. Nanoindentation measurements, microstructure, and plastometric studies allowed us to find the effective flow stress distribution in the grains. The IDD process was found to be much more stable and develop a much more uniform distribution of grain strain than the CDD process. More homogeneous deformation results in surface roughness reduction. Approximately 25–30% reduction in surface roughness of the wire produced by the IDD process was predicted by simulations and confirmed experimentally. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 7378 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Hydrogen Generation Performance of Al-Rich Alloys by a Melting-Mechanical Crushing-Ball Milling Method

by Lixiang Zhu, Meishuai Zou, Xiaodong Zhang, Lichen Zhang, Xiaoxuan Wang, Tinglu Song, Shuo Wang and Xiaodong Li

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7889; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247889 - 20 Dec 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 2795

Abstract

The main problem for the application of hydrogen generated via hydrolysis of metal alloys is the low hydrogen generation rate (HGR). In this paper, active Al alloys were prepared using a new coupled method-melting-mechanical crushing-mechanical ball milling method to enhance the HGR at [...] Read more.

The main problem for the application of hydrogen generated via hydrolysis of metal alloys is the low hydrogen generation rate (HGR). In this paper, active Al alloys were prepared using a new coupled method-melting-mechanical crushing-mechanical ball milling method to enhance the HGR at room temperature. This method contains three steps, including the melting of Al, Ga, In, and Sn ingots with low melting alloy blocks and casting into plates, then crushing alloy plate into powders and ball milling with chloride salts such as NiCl₂ and CoCl₂ were added during the ball milling process. The microstructure and phase compositions of Al alloys and reaction products were investigated via X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersed X-ray spectroscopy. The low-melting-point Ga-In -Sn (GIS) phases contain a large amount of Al can act as a transmission medium for Al, which improves the diffusion of Al to Al/H₂O reaction sites. Finer GIS phases after ball milling can further enhance the diffusion of Al and thus enhance the activity of Al alloy. The hydrogen generation performance through hydrolysis of water with Al at room temperature was investigated. The results show that the H₂ generation performance of the Al-low-melting point alloy composite powder is significantly higher than the results reported to date. The highest H₂ generation rate and H₂ conversion efficiency can reach 5337 mL·min⁻¹·g⁻¹ for the hydrolysis of water with 1 g active alloy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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18 pages, 9167 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of B on the Structure and Properties of Lead-Tin Bronze Alloy and the Mechanism of Strengthening and Toughening

by Xiaoyan Ren, Guowei Zhang, Hong Xu, Zhaojie Wang, Yijun Liu, Fenger Sun, Yuanyuan Kang, Mingjie Wang, Weize Lv and Zhi Yin

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7806; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247806 - 16 Dec 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3124

Abstract

High lead–tin bronze is widely used in the selection of wear-resistant parts such as bearings, bearing bushes, aerospace pump rotors, turbines, and guide plates because of its excellent wear resistance, thermal conductivity, fatigue resistance, and strong load-bearing capacity. At present, high lead–tin bronze [...] Read more.

High lead–tin bronze is widely used in the selection of wear-resistant parts such as bearings, bearing bushes, aerospace pump rotors, turbines, and guide plates because of its excellent wear resistance, thermal conductivity, fatigue resistance, and strong load-bearing capacity. At present, high lead–tin bronze is used as a material for bimetal cylinders, which cannot meet the requirements of high-strength, anti-wear in actual working conditions under high temperature, high speed, and heavy load conditions, and is prone to de-cylinder, cylinder holding, copper sticking, etc. The reason for the failure of cylinder body parts is that the strength of copper alloy materials is insufficient, the proportion of lead in the structure is serious, and the wear resistance of the material is reduced. Therefore, it has important theoretical significance and application value to carry out research on the comprehensive properties of high-performance lead–tin bronze materials and reveal the strengthening and toughening mechanism. In this paper, The ZCuPb20Sn5 alloy is taken as the main research object, and the particle size, microstructure, mechanical properties, and friction of lead particles in ZCuPb20Sn5 alloy are systematically studied after single addition of B in ZCuPb20Sn5 alloy liquid. This paper takes ZCuPb20Sn5 alloy as the research object to study the effect of adding B on the morphology, microstructure, mechanical properties, and friction and wear properties of ZCuPb20Sn5 alloy lead particles, and discusses the strengthening and toughening mechanism of ZCuPb20Sn5 alloy under the action of B, and prepares a double high-performance lead–tin bronze alloy for metal cylinders. The main research results are as follows: The addition of B elements has an obvious refining effect on the α (Cu) equiaxed grains and lead particles in ZCuPb20Sn5 alloy. The average size of lead particles decreases from 30.0 µm to 24.8 µm as the B content increases from 0 wt.% to 0.1 wt.%. The reason for grain refinement is that B is easily concentrated at the grain boundary during the ZCuPb20Sn5 alloy solidification process, which affects the diffusion of solute atoms at the solidification interface, inhibits the grain growth, refines the grain, and hinders the sinking and homogenizes distribution between dendrites of lead; the tensile strength of the ZCuPb20Sn5 alloy improves. Relatively without B, when the addition of P is 0.1 wt.%, the tensile strength is the largest at 244.04 MPa, which enhances 13%; the maximum hardness gets 75.0 HB, which enhances 13.6%, as well as elongation get the maximum value at 17.2%. The main mechanism is that the addition of B forms a high melting point submicron Ni₄B₃ phase in the lead–tin bronze alloy. The Ni₄B₃ phase is dispersed in the matrix and strengthens the matrix. With the increase in B content (more than 0.1 wt.%), the Ni₄B₃ phase changes from sub-micron degree granular to micron degree block-like, and some defects such as shrinkage and porosity appear in the structure, resulting in a decrease in mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 8132 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Pre-Heat Treatment for Nitriding

by Matthias Steinbacher and Stefanie Hoja

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7766; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247766 - 15 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3013

Abstract

To achieve a core strength that meets the requirements during service life, components to be nitrided are subjected to a pre-heat treatment. Since a higher strength prior to nitriding also has a positive effect on the achievable strength in the nitrided layer, an [...] Read more.

To achieve a core strength that meets the requirements during service life, components to be nitrided are subjected to a pre-heat treatment. Since a higher strength prior to nitriding also has a positive effect on the achievable strength in the nitrided layer, an optimization of the pre-heat treatment may lead to better service characteristics of nitrided components. For this purpose, different optimizations of pre-heat treatment were investigated on the nitriding and quenching and tempering steels EN31CrMoV9 and EN42CrMo4 (AISI4140). One strategy was a change of the austenitization temperature for EN31CrMoV9 from 870 °C to 950 °C in order to solve the coarse carbides of the as-delivered state and realize a finer distribution of the carbides in the quenched and tempered structure. This special treatment lead to a higher hardness compared to the conventional treatment. The second investigated pre-heat treatment variant was a bainitic treatment instead of quenching and tempering. The bainitic initial microstructure increased the diffusion depth compared to conventionally quenched and tempered specimens. In addition the maximum hardness of the nitrided layer, the core hardness was significantly higher on the specimens with the bainitic microstructure. During subsequent nitriding, however, the bainite is tempered and loses some of its hardness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 2934 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Behaviors of Microalloyed TRIP-Assisted Annealed Martensitic Steels under Hydrogen Charging

by Xiongfei Yang, Hao Yu, Chenghao Song and Lili Li

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7752; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247752 - 15 Dec 2021

Viewed by 2380

Abstract

Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP)-assisted annealed martensitic (TAM) steel sheets with various microalloying additions such as niobium, vanadium, or titanium were prepared on laboratory scale and subjected to a double-quenching and austempering heat treatment cycle. Slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) was tested on the [...] Read more.

Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP)-assisted annealed martensitic (TAM) steel sheets with various microalloying additions such as niobium, vanadium, or titanium were prepared on laboratory scale and subjected to a double-quenching and austempering heat treatment cycle. Slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) was tested on the investigated TAM steels with and without hydrogen charging to reveal their tensile behaviors and hydrogen induced embrittlement effects. Microstructure observations by scanning electron microscope (SEM) are composed of a principal annealed martensitic matrix and 11.0–13.0% volume fraction of retained austenite, depending on the type of microalloying addition in the different steels. SSRT results show that these TRIP-assisted annealed martensitic steels under air media conditions combine high tensile strength (>1000 MPa) and good ductility (~25%), while under hydrogen charging condition, both tensile strength and ductility decrease where tensile strength ranges between 680 and 760 MPa, down from 1000–1100 MPa, and ductility loss ratio is between 78.8% and 91.1%, along with a total elongation of less than 5%. Hydrogen charged into steel matrix leads to the appearance of cleavage fractures, implying the occurrence of hydrogen induced embrittlement effect in TAM steels. Thermal hydrogen desorption results show that there are double-peak hydrogen desorption temperature ranges for these microalloyed steels, where the first peak corresponds to a high-density dislocation trapping effect, and the second peak corresponds to a hydrogen trapping effect exerted by microalloying precipitates. Thermal desorption analysis (TDS) in combination with SSRT results demonstrate that microalloying precipitates act as irreversible traps to fix hydrogen and, thus, retard diffusive hydrogen motion towards defects, such as grain boundaries and dislocations in microstructure matrix, and eventually reduce the hydrogen induced embrittlement tendency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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20 pages, 6054 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Calcium Aluminate Slags and Pig Irons Produced from the Smelting-Reduction of Diasporic Bauxite

by Adamantia Lazou, Leiv Kolbeinsen and Jafar Safarian

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7740; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247740 - 15 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2181

Abstract

This work evaluates the characteristics of calcium aluminate slag and pig iron samples obtained from the smelting of calcined and reduced diasporic bauxite ore. The study is conducted in the Pedersen process framework, which is a method to produce alumina from low-grade resources. [...] Read more.

This work evaluates the characteristics of calcium aluminate slag and pig iron samples obtained from the smelting of calcined and reduced diasporic bauxite ore. The study is conducted in the Pedersen process framework, which is a method to produce alumina from low-grade resources. Parameters such as the effect of crucible type, lime addition, and atmospheric conditions are studied considering the characteristics of the product pig irons and calcium aluminate slags for further uses. The behavior of the bauxite and distribution of the species between slag and metal was assessed based on the applied analytical techniques and thermodynamic calculations. Iron was reduced and separated from the slags in the presence of carbon (graphite crucible) for both the reduced and calcined bauxite. Si and Ti were mainly concentrated in the slags. Iron was separated from the slag in the absence of carbon (alumina crucible) for the H₂-reduced bauxite. The results show that slags with increased lime additions are composed mainly of 5CaO.Al₂O₃ and CaO.Al₂O₃, that are considered highly leachable compounds. An optimum CaO/Al₂O₃ mass ratio of 1.12 was suggested. The presence of O₂ and/or OH^- in the furnace atmosphere will result in the formation of 12CaO.7Al₂O₃. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 35367 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interface Reaction between Molten Al99.7 Aluminum Alloy and Various Tool Steels

by Maja Vončina, Tilen Balaško, Jožef Medved and Aleš Nagode

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7708; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247708 - 13 Dec 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2391

Abstract

During the die-casting process as well as the hot forming process, the tool is subjected to complex thermal, mechanical, and chemical stresses that can cause various types of damage to different parts of the tool. This study was carried out to determine the [...] Read more.

During the die-casting process as well as the hot forming process, the tool is subjected to complex thermal, mechanical, and chemical stresses that can cause various types of damage to different parts of the tool. This study was carried out to determine the resistance of various tool steels, i.e., UTOPMO1, HTCS-130, and W600, in molten Al99.7 aluminum alloy at a temperature of 700 °C. The formation kinetics of the interaction layer between the molten aluminum and tool steels was studied using differential scanning calorimetry. Light and field-emission scanning electron microscopy were used to analyze the thickness and nature of the interaction layers, while thermodynamic calculations using the Thermo-Calc software were used to explain the results. The stability of the HTCS-130 and W600 tool steels is better than the stability of the UTOPMO1 tool steel in the molten Al99.7 aluminum. Two interaction layers were formed, which in all cases indicate an intermetallic Al₁₃Fe₄ layer near the aluminum alloy and an intermetallic Al₅Fe₂ layer near the tool steels, containing small round carbides. It was confirmed that Ni reduces the activity of aluminum in the ferrite matrix and causes a reduction in the thickness of the intermetallic layer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 4660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alumina-Toughened-Zirconia with Low Wear Rate in Ball-on-Flat Tribological Tests at Temperatures to 500 °C

by Marek Grabowy, Kamil Wojteczko, Agnieszka Wojteczko, Grzegorz Wiązania, Maciej Łuszcz, Magdalena Ziąbka and Zbigniew Pędzich

Materials 2021, 14(24), 7646; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247646 - 12 Dec 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2956

Abstract

An alumina-toughened zirconia (ATZ) material, fabricated using a procedure consisting of the common sintering of two different zirconia powders, was tested using the ball-on-disc method in a temperature range between room temperature and 500 °C. Corundum balls were used as a counterpart. The [...] Read more.

An alumina-toughened zirconia (ATZ) material, fabricated using a procedure consisting of the common sintering of two different zirconia powders, was tested using the ball-on-disc method in a temperature range between room temperature and 500 °C. Corundum balls were used as a counterpart. The ATZ composite behaviour during tests was compared with that of commonly used α-alumina and tetragonal zirconia sintered samples. At temperatures over 350 °C, a drastic decrease in the wear rate of the material was detected. SEM analyses proved that, in such conditions, nearly the whole surface of the sliding material was covered with a layer of deformed submicrometric grains, which limited contact with the part of material that was not deformed. The mentioned layer was relatively strongly connected with the material, increased its resistance, and decreased its coefficient of friction. As a reference, commonly used materials, namely commercial alumina and tetragonal zirconia, were tested. The wear parameters of the composite were significantly better than those registered for the materials prepared of commercial powders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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15 pages, 13232 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fatigue Properties of Hot-Dip Galvanized AISI 1020 Normalized Steel in Tension–Compression and Tension–Tension Loading

by Shatumbu Thomas Alweendo, Motoaki Morita, Kayo Hasegawa and Shinichi Motoda

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7480; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237480 - 6 Dec 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4626

Abstract

Since hot-dip galvanizing causes a heat effect on cold-worked steel substrate and produces a coating layer comprised of distinct phases with varying mechanical properties, the fatigue mechanism of hot-dip galvanized steel is very complex and hard to clarify. In this study, AISI 1020 [...] Read more.

Since hot-dip galvanizing causes a heat effect on cold-worked steel substrate and produces a coating layer comprised of distinct phases with varying mechanical properties, the fatigue mechanism of hot-dip galvanized steel is very complex and hard to clarify. In this study, AISI 1020 steel that has been normalized to minimize susceptibility to the heat effect was used to clarify the effect of the galvanizing layer on the tensile and fatigue properties. The galvanizing layer causes a reduction in the yield point, tensile strength, and fatigue strength. The reduction in the fatigue strength was more significant in the high cycle fatigue at R = 0.5 and 0.01 and in the low cycle fatigue at R = 0.5. The galvanizing layer seems to have very little effect on the fatigue strength at R = −1.0 in the low and high cycle fatigue. Since the fatigue strengths at R = 0.01 and −1.0 in the low cycle fatigue were strongly related to the tensile strength of the substrate, the cracking of galvanized steel was different than that of non-galvanized steel. The fatigue strength of galvanized steel at R = 0.5 dropped remarkably in the low cycle fatigue in comparison to the non-galvanized steel, and many cracks clearly occurred in the galvanizing layer. The galvanizing layer reduced the fatigue strength only under tension–tension loading. We believe that the findings in this study will be useful in the fatigue design of hot-dip galvanized steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 4668 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tribo-oxide Competition and Oxide Layer Formation of Ti₃SiC₂/CaF₂ Self-Lubricating Composites during the Friction Process in a Wide Temperature Range

by Rui Zhang, Wei Feng and Fuyan Liu

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7466; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237466 - 6 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2233

Abstract

Ti₃SiC₂/CaF₂ composites were prepared by the spark plasma sintering (SPS) process. Both the microstructure of Ti₃SiC₂/CaF₂ and the influence of test temperature on the tribological behavior of the Ti₃SiC₂/CaF [...] Read more.

Ti₃SiC₂/CaF₂ composites were prepared by the spark plasma sintering (SPS) process. Both the microstructure of Ti₃SiC₂/CaF₂ and the influence of test temperature on the tribological behavior of the Ti₃SiC₂/CaF₂composites were investigated. The synergistic effect of friction and oxidation was evaluated by analyzing the worn surface morphology. The results showed that Ti₃SiC₂/CaF₂ were still brittle materials after adding CaF₂, which was in agreement with Ti₃SiC₂. The hardness, relative density, flexural strength and compressive strength of the Ti₃SiC₂/CaF₂ composites were slightly lower than those of Ti₃SiC₂, and the addition of CaF₂ decreased the decomposition temperature of Ti₃SiC₂ from 1350 to 1300 °C. Simultaneously, as the temperature of the test increased, the friction coefficient of Ti₃SiC₂/CaF₂ showed a downward trend (from 0.81 to 0.34), and its the wear rate was insensitive. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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20 pages, 12038 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Fillet Weld Size and Sleeve Material Strength on the Residual Stress Distribution and Structural Safety While Implementing the New Sleeve Repair Process

by Hongjie Zhang, Tao Han, Yong Wang and Qian Wu

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7463; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237463 - 5 Dec 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3656

Abstract

The process optimization and structural safety improvement of the in-service repair welding of the X80 pipeline are very important. In this paper, the temperature, microstructure, and stress distribution were analyzed using the combination of TMM (thermal-metallurgical-mechanical) simulations and the corresponding verification experiments. The [...] Read more.

The process optimization and structural safety improvement of the in-service repair welding of the X80 pipeline are very important. In this paper, the temperature, microstructure, and stress distribution were analyzed using the combination of TMM (thermal-metallurgical-mechanical) simulations and the corresponding verification experiments. The effects of the sleeve material strength and the fillet weld size were discussed. The results showed that the fillet weld zone was mainly composed of ferrite and bainite when the material of the sleeve pipe was Q345B. Furthermore, the sleeve pipe’s HAZ (heat affected zone) was dominated by lath martensite, lath bainite, and granular bainite. Moreover, granular bainite and a small amount of ferrite were found in the HAZ of the X80 pipe. It was found that, as the fillet weld size increased, the welding residual stress distribution became more uniform. The hoop stress at weld toe reduced from ~860 MPa of case A to ~680 MPa of case E, and the axial stress at weld toe reduced from ~440 MPa of case A to ~380 MPa of case E. From the viewpoint of welding residual stress, fillet weld size was suggested to be larger than 1.4T. The stress concentration and the stress distribution showed a correlation with the cracking behavior. Weld re-solidification ripples on the weld surface and weld ripples between welding passes or near the weld toe could cause stress concentration and the corresponding crack initiation. Furthermore, when the material of the sleeve pipe changed from Q345B to X80, the high-level tensile stress zone was found to be enlarged. The hoop stress at weld toe increased from ~750 to ~800 MPa, and the axial stress at weld toe increased from ~500 to ~600 MPa. After implementing the new sleeve repair welding process where X80 replaces the material of sleeve pipe, the cracking risk in sleeve pipe will improve. From the perspective of the welding residual stress, it was concluded that the fillet weld size reduction and the sleeve material strength improvement are harmful to in-service welded structures’ safety and integrity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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15 pages, 8624 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature Dependency on the Microscopic Mechanism in the Normal Direction of Wrought AZ31 Sheet under Dynamic Compressive Behavior

by Feng Zhang, Mingcheng Sun, Baojie Sun, Fengzheng Zhang, Yikui Bai and Zheng Liu

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7436; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237436 - 3 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2291

Abstract

In order to analyze the competitive relationship of different deformation mechanisms in wrought AZ31 magnesium alloy, the dynamic compressive experiments were conducted by a Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) apparatus and a resistance-heated furnace in the range of temperature between 20 and 350 [...] Read more.

In order to analyze the competitive relationship of different deformation mechanisms in wrought AZ31 magnesium alloy, the dynamic compressive experiments were conducted by a Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) apparatus and a resistance-heated furnace in the range of temperature between 20 and 350 °C at the strain rate of 1000 s⁻¹. With the help of Electron Backscattered Diffraction (EBSD) observation, theoretical calculated Schmid Factor (SF), Critical Resolved Shear Stress (CRSS), and critical equivalent stress (σ0.2), the dynamic compressive deformation behavior and corresponding mechanism of wrought AZ31 magnesium alloy along the normal direction (ND) were revealed in the current study. The results demonstrate that the c-axis of grains are gradually reoriented parallel to the normal direction of wrought AZ31-ND sheet with the temperature increasing, except the dynamic recrystallization (DRX) mechanism was activated or grains grew up. The non-basal slip and

\{10 \bar{1} 2\}

tension twinning are respectively the predominant deformation mechanisms at lower temperatures (≤250 °C) and higher temperatures (≥250 °C). The predominant type of DRX mechanism of wrought AZ31-ND sheet is rotational dynamic recrystallization (RDRX), which is regarded as an obstacle for the kernel misorientation concentration region enhancement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 7014 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reaction Behavior of Porous TiAl₃ Intermetallics Fabricated by Thermal Explosion with Different Particle Sizes

by Kaiyang Li, Tiance Zhang and Yuanzhi Zhu

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7417; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237417 - 3 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2226

Abstract

Porous TiAl₃ intermetallics were prepared by the thermal explosion (TE) and space holder method with different particle sizes of Ti and Al powders, and their reaction behaviors were investigated. The results showed that with the increase in the particle size of the [...] Read more.

Porous TiAl₃ intermetallics were prepared by the thermal explosion (TE) and space holder method with different particle sizes of Ti and Al powders, and their reaction behaviors were investigated. The results showed that with the increase in the particle size of the Ti and Al powders, the interfacial contact between the particles decreased, resulting in low interfacial energy and reaction activity, making the process difficult to initiate. Meanwhile, the heat flow rose from 358.37 J/g to 730.17 J/g and 566.74 J/g due to the extension of the solid–liquid diffusion time. The TiAl₃ structures obviously expanded, and the formation of connected pore channels promoted the porosity. Only when the Ti and Al particle sizes were both small did the solid–solid diffusion significantly appear. At the same time, the TE reaction weakened, so the product particles had no time to fully grow. This indicates that the particle size of the raw materials controlled the TE reaction process by changing the solid–liquid diffusion reaction time and the degree of solid-phase diffusion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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15 pages, 4599 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of (NH₄)₂ZrF₆, Voltage and Treating Time on Corrosion Resistance of Micro-Arc Oxidation Coatings Applied on ZK61M Magnesium Alloys

by Jiahui Yong, Hongzhan Li, Zhengxian Li, Yongnan Chen, Yifei Wang and Juanjuan Geng

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7410; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237410 - 3 Dec 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2315

Abstract

The effects of (NH₄)₂ZrF₆ concentration, voltage and treating time on the corrosion resistance of ZK61M magnesium alloy micro-arc oxidation coatings were studied by orthogonal experiments. The SEM result shows that the surface roughness and porosity of MAO coatings [...] Read more.

The effects of (NH₄)₂ZrF₆ concentration, voltage and treating time on the corrosion resistance of ZK61M magnesium alloy micro-arc oxidation coatings were studied by orthogonal experiments. The SEM result shows that the surface roughness and porosity of MAO coatings increased with (NH₄)₂ZrF₆ concentration, voltage and treating time as a whole, except the porosity decreased with treating time. EDS, XRD and XPS analysis show that (NH₄)₂ZrF₆ was successfully incorporated into coatings by reactive incorporation, coatings are dominantly composed of ZrO₂, MgO, MgF₂ and amorphous phase Mg phosphate. Potentiodynamic polarization was used to evaluate the corrosion property of coatings. When the concentration of (NH₄)₂ZrF₆ is 6 g/L, the voltage is 450 V, and the treating time is 15 min, the coating exhibits the best corrosion resistance which corrosion current density is four magnitudes lower than substrate attributed to the incorporation of ZrO₂ and the deposition of MgF₂ in the micropores. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 4751 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hardness–Deformation Energy Relationship in Metals and Alloys: A Comparative Evaluation Based on Nanoindentation Testing and Thermodynamic Consideration

by Masayuki Yamamoto, Masaki Tanaka and Osamu Furukimi

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7217; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237217 - 26 Nov 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3276

Abstract

Nanoindentation testing using a Berkovich indenter was conducted to explore the relationships among indentation hardness (H), elastic work energy (W_e), plastic work energy (W_p), and total energy (W_t = W_e + W [...] Read more.

Nanoindentation testing using a Berkovich indenter was conducted to explore the relationships among indentation hardness (H), elastic work energy (W_e), plastic work energy (W_p), and total energy (W_t = W_e + W_p) for deformation among a wide range of pure metal and alloy samples with different hardness, including iron, steel, austenitic stainless steel (H ≈ 2600–9000 MPa), high purity copper, single-crystal tungsten, and 55Ni–45Ti (mass%) alloy. Similar to previous studies, W_e/W_t and W_p/W_t showed positive and negative linear relationships with elastic strain resistance (H/E_r), respectively, where E_r is the reduced Young’s modulus obtained by using the nanoindentation. It is typically considered that W_p has no relationship with W_e; however, we found that W_p/W_e correlated well with H/E_r for all the studied materials. With increasing H/E_r, the curve converged toward W_p/W_e = 1, because the Gibbs free energy should not become negative when indents remain after the indentation. Moreover, H/E_r must be less than or equal to 0.08. Thermodynamic analyses emphasized the physical meaning of hardness obtained by nanoindentation; that is, when E_r is identical, harder materials show smaller values of W_p/W_e than those of softer ones during nanoindentation under the same applied load. This fundamental knowledge will be useful for identifying and developing metallic materials with an adequate balance of elastic and plastic energies depending on the application (such as construction or medical equipment). Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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9 pages, 2813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transformation of the Metastable Al₆Fe Intermetallic Phase during Homogenization of a Binary Al-Fe Alloy

by Jože Arbeiter, Maja Vončina, Barbara Šetina Batič and Jožef Medved

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7208; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237208 - 26 Nov 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2612

Abstract

Within the scope of this research the transformation of the Al₆Fe metastable phase was analyzed via Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), optical and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD). A binary Al-Fe1.1 low-impurity alloy was produced with refined raw materials [...] Read more.

Within the scope of this research the transformation of the Al₆Fe metastable phase was analyzed via Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), optical and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X-ray Diffraction (XRD). A binary Al-Fe1.1 low-impurity alloy was produced with refined raw materials in a controlled environment. With a cooling rate of 35 K/s, solidification of the Al₆Fe metastable phase was achieved. The samples were homogenized at 600 °C for 2–24 h. Results of a qualitative analysis of metallographic samples show that the transformation began on grain boundaries, forming an Fe-phase free region, but after 2 h began to take place within the eutectic region. The transformation is mostly complete after 12 h, but after 24 h of homogenization it is fully complete as all samples, except the 24 h homogenized one, contain both the metastable Al₆Fe and the stable Al₁₃Fe₄ phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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17 pages, 79886 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Shaped Charge Jet Performance Generated by Machined and Additively Manufactured CuSn10 Liners

by Shengjie Sun, Jianwei Jiang, Shuyou Wang, Jianbing Men, Mei Li and Yawei Wang

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7149; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237149 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3124

Abstract

The Selective Laser Melting (SLM) technique has attracted attention in a wide range of manufacturing research areas, including the defense industry because of its high efficiency and good consistency of manufactured material properties. Shaped charge liner is the crucial unit in the shaped [...] Read more.

The Selective Laser Melting (SLM) technique has attracted attention in a wide range of manufacturing research areas, including the defense industry because of its high efficiency and good consistency of manufactured material properties. Shaped charge liner is the crucial unit in the shaped charge warhead. However, jet performance formed by SLM-produced liner remains to be studied systematically. In the present research work, the SLM technique was applied to manufacture CuSn10 shaped charge liners. Casted CuSn10 liners were also fabricated using the classical turning method for comparison. The grain size of the SLM-produced liner was found to be much smaller than the machined liner due to the rapid heating and cooling rate during the SLM manufacturing process. This contributed to improved jet performance. A flash X-ray photography system was applied to capture jet stretching appearances. Necking appears at the jet tip formed by the machined liner, while the jet formed by the SLM-produced liner remains continuous. Penetration test results show that the penetration depth of the jet formed by the SLM-produced liner is around 27% larger than that formed by the machined liner. Segments along the sidewall of the penetration tunnels were selected for in-depth micro analysis. Energy dispersed spectrum (EDS) surface scanning results indicate the composition at the side wall of the penetrated tunnel. Metallurgical microscope was applied to distinguish four different phase zones of the target. The width of these different zones indicates the severity of the lateral interaction between the jet and target, which can be adopted to evaluate jet penetration capability. The present study analyzes the factors that influence jet performances and proves that SLM technology is well-adapted in the manufacturing of shaped charge liners. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 5670 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microgalvanic Corrosion of Mg–Ca and Mg–Al–Ca Alloys in NaCl and Na₂SO₄ Solutions

by Peixu Yang, Songbo Ye, Baojing Feng, Jinhui Liu, Sensen Huang, Guonan Liu, Weidong Zhang, Weineng Tang, Shijie Zhu and Shaojun Zhang

Materials 2021, 14(23), 7140; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237140 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2543

Abstract

As a kind of potential biomedical material, Mg–Ca alloy has attracted much attention. However, the role of Ca-containing intermetallics in microgalvanic corrosion is still controversial. In 0.6 mol/L NaCl and Na₂SO₄ solutions, the microgalvanic corrosion behavior of the second phase [...] Read more.

As a kind of potential biomedical material, Mg–Ca alloy has attracted much attention. However, the role of Ca-containing intermetallics in microgalvanic corrosion is still controversial. In 0.6 mol/L NaCl and Na₂SO₄ solutions, the microgalvanic corrosion behavior of the second phase and Mg matrix of Mg–Ca and Mg–Al–Ca alloys was examined. It was confirmed that the Mg₂Ca phase acts as a microanode in microgalvanic corrosion in both NaCl and Na₂SO₄ solutions, with the Mg matrix acting as the cathode and the Al₂Ca phase acting as the microcathode to accelerate corrosion of the adjacent Mg matrix. It was also found that Cl⁻ and SO₄²⁻ have different sensibilities to microgalvanic corrosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 6802 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanism of and Key Technologies for Copper Bonding in the Hot Rolling of SCR Continuous Casting and Rolling

by Yang Liu, Yan Peng and Xiaobo Qu

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(22), 11023; https://doi.org/10.3390/app112211023 - 21 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5199

Abstract

In the process of copper alloy hot continuous rolling, the problem of copper sticking to the roller seriously affects the surface quality, performance, and service life of the copper products. Roll sticking occurs as the adhesion energy of Cu is lower than that [...] Read more.

In the process of copper alloy hot continuous rolling, the problem of copper sticking to the roller seriously affects the surface quality, performance, and service life of the copper products. Roll sticking occurs as the adhesion energy of Cu is lower than that of Fe and the Fe-Cu interface, and the severe surface deformation which forces the copper into direct contact with the roll during the process of profile rolling. Based on the copper deformation law and adhesion phenomenon in the hot continuous rolling process, a rolling deformation model and roll copper adhesion model or copper alloy hot continuous rolling were established, and their simulation was realized using finite element software. Through finite element modeling of the hot rolling deformation zone, the distribution of the temperature, contact normal stress, and exposure rate in the hot rolling deformation zone were obtained, which were consistent with the actual roll adhesion phenomenon and copper adhesion position. To address the copper sticking behavior of the rolls, the process optimization method of matching the motor speed with the elongation coefficient (the 1# and 2# motor speeds were adjusted to 1549 r/min and 1586 r/min, respectively), adjusting the roll gap to 7.9 mm, and increasing the number and pressure of roll spray nozzles were put forward, which effectively solved the problem of copper sticking to the roll, significantly improved the surface quality of the copper and the service life of the roll, and can be used in production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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18 pages, 4736 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of the Hot Rolling Process of Steel Beams

by Alejandro Pérez-Alvarado, Sixtos Antonio Arreola-Villa, Ismael Calderón-Ramos, Rumualdo Servín Castañeda, Luis Alberto Mendoza de la Rosa, Kinnor Chattopadhyay and Rodolfo Morales

Materials 2021, 14(22), 7038; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14227038 - 20 Nov 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3845

Abstract

The complete rolling schedule (25 passes) of steel beams in a mill was simulated to predict the final beam length, geometry of the cross-section, effective stress, effective plastic strain and rolling power for two cases; the first case corresponds to the hot rolling [...] Read more.

The complete rolling schedule (25 passes) of steel beams in a mill was simulated to predict the final beam length, geometry of the cross-section, effective stress, effective plastic strain and rolling power for two cases; the first case corresponds to the hot rolling process assuming a constant temperature of 1200

^{\circ} C

. The simulation of the second case considered the real beam temperature at each pass to compare the results with in-plant measurements and validate the numerical model. Then, the results of both cases were compared to determine the critical passes of the process with high peaks of required power, coinciding with the reports at the mill. These critical passes share the same conditions, high percentage of reduction in cross-sectional area and low beam temperature. Additionally, a potential reduction of passes in the process was proposed identifying passes with low required power, minimal reduction in area of cross-section and essentially unchanged geometry. Therefore, it is reasonable to state that using the present research methodology, it is possible to have a better control of the process allowing innovation in the production of profiles with more complex geometries and new materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 2748 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interaction of Long Time Pulses of an Nd³⁺:YAG Laser Beam with the Heusler AlloyNi₄₅Co₅Mn_35.5In_14.5

by Patryk Ciupak, Artur Barłowski, Piotr Sagan, Tadeusz Jasiński and Marian Kuzma

Materials 2021, 14(22), 7016; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14227016 - 19 Nov 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1850

Abstract

In this paper, the laser processing of the surface of bulk and layered samples (of thickness 75 nm) of Ni₄₅Co₅Mn_35.5In_14.5 alloy (NC5MI) was investigated using microsecond laser pulses. A Q-switched pulsed Nd³⁺:YAG laser, operating [...] Read more.

In this paper, the laser processing of the surface of bulk and layered samples (of thickness 75 nm) of Ni₄₅Co₅Mn_35.5In_14.5 alloy (NC5MI) was investigated using microsecond laser pulses. A Q-switched pulsed Nd³⁺:YAG laser, operating in the 1st harmonic (which had a wavelength of 1064 nm) with a pulse duration of 250 µs, was used. NC5MI is a metal resistant to thermal laser processing because its reflection coefficient is close to unity for long wavelengths. The aim of this paper was to learn the forms of laser processing (heating, microprocessing, ablation) for which the above-specified type of laser is useful. The samples were irradiated with various fluences in the interval of 5–32 J·cm⁻². The effect of the laser interaction with the surface was explored by SEM microscopy. The threshold fluences for the bulk sample were determined as: the visible damage threshold (F_th^d = 2 ± 0.2 J·cm⁻²), the melting threshold (F_th^m = 10 ± 0.5 J·cm⁻²), and the deep melting threshold (F_th^dm = 32 J·cm⁻²). Unexpectedly, these values wereincreased for the layer sample due to its silicon substrate. We have concluded that this type of laser radiation is advantageous for the annealing and melting of, or drilling holes in, the alloy, but disadvantageousto the ablation of the alloy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 2437 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Creep Damage of Ni-Based Superalloy Caused by Variable Load Conditions at Elevated Temperatures

by Sunguk Wee, Keekeun Kim, Kibum Park and Changsung Seok

Materials 2021, 14(22), 6971; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14226971 - 18 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2526

Abstract

Higher fatigue and creep resistance at high temperatures are the essential properties for materials such as those used in gas turbines for power generation and aircraft turbines. Therefore, the nickel-based superalloy CMSX-4 was developed through single-crystal casting to satisfy these requirements. In this [...] Read more.

Higher fatigue and creep resistance at high temperatures are the essential properties for materials such as those used in gas turbines for power generation and aircraft turbines. Therefore, the nickel-based superalloy CMSX-4 was developed through single-crystal casting to satisfy these requirements. In this study, the CMSX-4 creep test results reported by previous researchers were used to mathematically derive an equation to estimate the amount of creep damage occurring under variable load conditions. In addition, low-cycle fatigue tests were performed, and the effect of creep damage occurring during fatigue on material failure was described. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 5464 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Formation of Silicide and Silicide-Aluminide Coatings on Molybdenum Alloy during Slurry Cementation Process: Influence of Slurry Volume

by Agnieszka Elżbieta Kochmańska, Aneta Jarlaczyńska and Jolanta Baranowska

Materials 2021, 14(22), 6940; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14226940 - 17 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2630

Abstract

New slurry cementation method was used to produce silicide and silicide-aluminide protective coatings on molybdenum alloy (TZM). The slurry cementation processes were carried out at a temperature of 1000 °C in different time intervals with the use of varied slurry mass values. The [...] Read more.

New slurry cementation method was used to produce silicide and silicide-aluminide protective coatings on molybdenum alloy (TZM). The slurry cementation processes were carried out at a temperature of 1000 °C in different time intervals with the use of varied slurry mass values. The microstructure and thickness of the coatings were studied by means of scanning microscopy. Chemical composition using X-ray microanalysis and phase composition using X-ray diffraction were also investigated. Coating microhardness was determined. The obtained coatings had a multilayer structure. Phases from the Al-Si-Mo system were observed in silicide-aluminide coatings and phases from the Si-Mo system were observed in silicide coatings. The microhardness strongly depended on the phase composition of the coating. It was demonstrated that slurry mass values had an important influence on the morphology and growth kinetics of silicide-aluminide coatings. In the case of a small amount of the slurry, the deficiency of alloying elements occurring during long processes reduces growth kinetics and can lead to void formation in the structure of silicide-aluminide coatings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 5505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure Evolution and Mechanical Properties of Medium Carbon Martensitic Steel during Warm Rolling and Annealing Process

by Guolong Liu, Jingbao Liu, Jie Zhang, Minghe Zhang and Yunli Feng

Materials 2021, 14(22), 6900; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14226900 - 15 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2077

Abstract

The microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of medium carbon martensitic steel during the warm rolling and annealing process were studied by scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron back scattering diffraction (EBSD), and electronic universal testing machine. The results showed that the microstructure of ferrite [...] Read more.

The microstructure evolution and mechanical properties of medium carbon martensitic steel during the warm rolling and annealing process were studied by scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron back scattering diffraction (EBSD), and electronic universal testing machine. The results showed that the microstructure of ferrite matrix with mass dispersive cementite particles was obtained by decomposition of martensitic in medium-carbon martensitic steel after warm rolling. The grain size of ferrite was ~0.53 μm, the yield strength and tensile strength were 951 MPa and 968 MPa, respectively, and the total elongation rate was 11.5% after warm rolling at 600 °C. Additionally, after the next 4 h of annealing, the grain size of ferrite and particle size of cementite increased to ~1.35 μm and ~360 nm and the yield strength and tensile strength decreased to 600 MPa and 645 MPa, respectively, with a total elongation increases of 20.9%. The strength of the material increased with increasing strain rate in tension, and the yield-to-tensile strength ratio increased from 0.92 to 0.94 and maintained good plasticity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 7896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tin Whiskers’ Behavior under Stress Load and the Mitigation Method for Immersion Tin Surface Finish

by Nor Akmal Fadil, Siti Zahira Yusof, Tuty Asma Abu Bakar, Habibah Ghazali, Muhamad Azizi Mat Yajid, Saliza Azlina Osman and Ali Ourdjini

Materials 2021, 14(22), 6817; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14226817 - 11 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3405

Abstract

Since the use of the most stable Pb-based materials in the electronic industry has been banned due to human health concerns, numerous research studies have focused on Pb-free materials such as pure tin and its alloys for electronic applications. Pure tin, however, suffers [...] Read more.

Since the use of the most stable Pb-based materials in the electronic industry has been banned due to human health concerns, numerous research studies have focused on Pb-free materials such as pure tin and its alloys for electronic applications. Pure tin, however, suffers from tin whiskers’ formation, which tends to endanger the efficiency of electronic circuits, and even worse, may cause short circuits to the electronic components. This research aims to investigate the effects of stress on tin whiskers’ formation and growth and the mitigation method for the immersion of the tin surface’s finish deposited on a copper substrate. The coated surface was subjected to external stress by micro-hardness indenters with a 2N load in order to simulate external stress applied to the coating layer, prior to storage in the humidity chamber with environmental conditions of 30 °C/60% RH up to 52 weeks. A nickel underlayer was deposited between the tin surface finish and copper substrate to mitigate the formation and growth of tin whiskers. FESEM was used to observe the whiskers and EDX was used for measuring the chemical composition of the surface finish, tin whiskers, and oxides formed after a certain period of storage. An image analyzer was used to measure the whiskers’ length using the JEDEC Standard (JESD22-A121A). The results showed that the tin whiskers increased directly proportional to the storage time, and they formed and grew longer on the thicker tin coating (2.3 μm) than the thin coating (1.5 μm). This is due to greater internal stress being generated by the thicker intermetallic compounds identified as the Cu₅Sn₆ phase, formed on a thicker tin coating. In addition, the formation and growth of CuO flowers on the 1.5 μm-thick tin coating suppressed the growth of tin whiskers. However, the addition of external stress by an indentation on the tin coating surface showed that the tin whiskers’ growth discontinued after week 4 in the indented area. Instead, the whiskers that formed were greater and longer at a distance farther from the indented area due to Sn atom migration from a high stress concentration to a lower stress concentration. Nonetheless, the length of the whisker for the indented surface was shorter than the non-indented surface because the whiskers’ growth was suppressed by the formation of CuO flowers. On the other hand, a nickel underlayer successfully mitigated the formation of tin whiskers upon the immersion of a tin surface finish. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 5576 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Titanium-Enriched Slag Prepared by Atmospheric Hydrochloric Acid Leaching of Mechanically Activated Vanadium Titanomagnetite Concentrates

by En-Hui Wu, Yin-He Lin, Jun Liu, Zhe Wang, Jin-Chuan Liu, Guo-Liang Yin, Jing-Wei Li, Xiang-Kui Cheng and Yu-Long Jia

Materials 2021, 14(22), 6736; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14226736 - 9 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2363

Abstract

The titanium-enriched slag was obtained via atmospheric hydrochloric acid leaching of mechanically activated vanadium titanomagnetite concentrates (VTMCs). Under the influence of mechanical activation, specific physicochemical changes were observed via X-ray diffractometry, scanning electron microscopy, and granulometric laser diffraction analysis. Experimental findings revealed that [...] Read more.

The titanium-enriched slag was obtained via atmospheric hydrochloric acid leaching of mechanically activated vanadium titanomagnetite concentrates (VTMCs). Under the influence of mechanical activation, specific physicochemical changes were observed via X-ray diffractometry, scanning electron microscopy, and granulometric laser diffraction analysis. Experimental findings revealed that the mechanical activation of VTMCs resulted in a decrease in the median volume particle diameter (d50) and an increase in the specific surface area (SA) with an increased milling time. The results of the leaching experiment revealed that the mechanical activation treatment favors the extraction of iron (Fe) and titanium dioxide (TiO₂) from the VTMCs. The Fe and TiO₂ extractions from the mechanically activated sample after 10 h compared with the unactivated sample were increased by 12.82% and 4.73%, respectively. The presence of the ilmenite phase in the titanium-enriched slag was confirmed by X-ray diffractometry and EDS patterns, and the content of the TiO₂ in the enriched slag can get as high as 43.75%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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21 pages, 10471 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Strengthening Mechanism of Rare Earth Ce in Magnesium Alloys, Based on First-Principle Calculations and Electronegativity Theory

by Yanfei Chen, Zhengqiang Zhu, Jixue Zhou and Huasheng Lai

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6681; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216681 - 5 Nov 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3166

Abstract

Since the commercial applications of rare earth magnesium alloys are increasing gradually, there are considerable advantages to developing lower cost and higher performance magnesium alloys with high abundance rare earth (RE) elements. However, the alloying order of a matrix magnesium alloy is completely [...] Read more.

Since the commercial applications of rare earth magnesium alloys are increasing gradually, there are considerable advantages to developing lower cost and higher performance magnesium alloys with high abundance rare earth (RE) elements. However, the alloying order of a matrix magnesium alloy is completely changed with the addition of RE elements. Therefore, further study of the strengthening mechanism of Ce element in magnesium alloys is required. In this work, the thermodynamic stability of the possible second phases in a Mg-Al-Mn-Ce multicomponent magnesium alloy were analyzed, based on first-principle calculations, and the precipitation sequence of the key RE phases was deduced as a consequence. Combined with Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), X-ray Diffractometer (XRD), Energy Dispersive Spectrometer (EDS), and other experimental methods, it was investigated whether the preferentially precipitated second phases were the nucleation core of primary α-Mg. The complex alloying problem and strengthening mechanism in a multi-elemental magnesium alloy system were simplified with the aid of electronegativity theory. The results showed that the preferentially precipitated Al₁₁Ce₃ and Al₁₀Ce₂Mn₇ phases could not be the nucleation core of primary α-Mg, and the grain refinement mechanism was such that the second phases at the grain boundary prevented the growth of magnesium grains. Moreover, the tensile test results showed that the reinforced structure, in which the Al-Ce phase was mixed with Mg-Al phase, was beneficial for improving the mechanical properties of magnesium alloys, at both ambient temperature and high temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 28922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

External Corrosion Behavior of Steel/GFRP Composite Pipes in Harsh Conditions

by Fatima Ghassan Alabtah, Elsadig Mahdi and Marwan Khraisheh

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6501; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216501 - 29 Oct 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3167

Abstract

In this study, we report on the corrosion behavior of hybrid steel/glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite pipes under harsh corrosive conditions for prolonged durations. Specimens were immersed in highly concentrated solutions of hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride, and sulfuric acid for durations up to [...] Read more.

In this study, we report on the corrosion behavior of hybrid steel/glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite pipes under harsh corrosive conditions for prolonged durations. Specimens were immersed in highly concentrated solutions of hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride, and sulfuric acid for durations up to one year. Detailed qualitative analysis using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) is presented. It is shown that the hybrid pipes have excellent corrosion resistance with a corrosion rate of less than 1% of the corrosion rate for conventional steel pipes. That low corrosion rate can be attributed to the formation of pores in the GFRP layer due to increased absorption and saturation moisture in the material with increased soaking time. This can be reduced or even prevented through a more controlled process for fabricating the protective layers. These promising results call for more utilization of GFRP protective layers in novel design concepts to control corrosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 3175 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Turning Tool Wear Estimation Based on the Calculated Parameter Values of the Thermodynamic Subsystem of the Cutting System

by Victor Petrovich Lapshin

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6492; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216492 - 29 Oct 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2053

Abstract

Today, modern metalworking centers are not yet able to reliably assess the degree of wear of the tool used in metal cutting. Despite the fact that a large number of methods for monitoring the service life of the tool have been developed, this [...] Read more.

Today, modern metalworking centers are not yet able to reliably assess the degree of wear of the tool used in metal cutting. Despite the fact that a large number of methods for monitoring the service life of the tool have been developed, this issue still remains a difficult task that needs to be solved. Idea: The article proposes a new, previously unused method for estimating the power of a cutting wedge in metalworking. The aim of the study is to develop a method for indirectly estimating the tool wear rate based on a consistent model of intersystem communication that describes the force, thermal and vibration reactions of the cutting process to the shaping movements of the tool. Research methods: The study consists of experiments on a measuring stand and a homemade measuring complex. It also uses the Matlab mathematical software package for processing and graphical interpretation of data obtained during experiments. The results show that the proposed method of estimating the current tool wear is applicable for the interpretation of experimental data. Statistically, the modified Voltaire operator of the second kind models the temperature more accurately; at the peak, this method is three times more accurate than the other. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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10 pages, 7172 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reaction Mechanism of ZrB₂-ZrC Formation in Ni-Zr-B₄C System Analyzed by Differential Scanning Calorimetry

by Jiaying Xu, Pengfei Ma and Binglin Zou

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6467; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216467 - 28 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1695

Abstract

The reaction mechanism of ZrB₂-ZrC formation in a 30% Ni-Zr-B₄C system under argon was revealed by using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results indicated that the reaction mechanism in the Ni-Zr-B [...] Read more.

The reaction mechanism of ZrB₂-ZrC formation in a 30% Ni-Zr-B₄C system under argon was revealed by using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results indicated that the reaction mechanism in the Ni-Zr-B₄C system was complex. Initially, Ni_xZr_y and Ni_xB_y intermetallics were formed via solid-state diffusion reactions between Ni, B₄C and Zr. Then, the eutectic reaction between Ni₂B and Ni₄B₃ lead to the formation of Ni-B liquid. The free C atoms dissolved into the Ni-B liquid to form a Ni-B-C ternary liquid, and then part of the Zr powder dissolved into the surrounding Ni-B-C ternary liquid to form Ni-Zr-B-C quaternary liquid. Finally, ZrB₂ and ZrC formed and precipitated out of the saturated liquid. The eutectic liquid plays an important role during the formation of ZrB₂-ZrC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 20594 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrothermal Aging of ATZ Composites Based on Zirconia Made of Powders with Different Yttria Content

by Marek Grabowy, Agnieszka Wilk, Radosław Lach and Zbigniew Pędzich

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6418; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216418 - 26 Oct 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2844

Abstract

The presented work concerns the development and investigation of three different grades of ZrO₂ materials containing Al₂O₃ particles (ATZ-Alumina Toughened Zirconia ceramics with 2.3–20 vol.% of alumina). The zirconia powders containing 3 mol.% of yttria were synthesized by a [...] Read more.

The presented work concerns the development and investigation of three different grades of ZrO₂ materials containing Al₂O₃ particles (ATZ-Alumina Toughened Zirconia ceramics with 2.3–20 vol.% of alumina). The zirconia powders containing 3 mol.% of yttria were synthesized by a precipitation/calcination method and fabricated from two different zirconia powders with different yttria content. Then, the selected ATZ composites (ATZ-B, ATZ-10 and ATZ-20) were prepared by means of conventional mixing, compacting and sintering at 1450 °C for 1.5 h. The phase composition, microstructure, relative density and basic mechanical properties were determined. Uniform microstructures with relative densities over 99% of theoretical density, hardness values between 12.0–13.8 GPa, flexural strength up to 1 GPa and outstanding fracture toughness of 12.7 MPa⋅m^1/2 were obtained. The aging susceptibility of alumina toughened zirconia materials, as a consequence of hydrothermal treatment, was investigated. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of LTD (low temperature degradation) on the tetragonal to monoclinic phase transitions and on the flexural strength of hydrothermally aged specimens. The results were compared to those obtained for commercially available tetragonal zirconia-based materials containing 3 mol.% of yttria. This research shows that ATZ composites that have excellent mechanical properties and sufficient hydrothermal aging resistance can be attained and later used in technical and biomedical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 4051 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Flow Stress Model of the AA3104-H19 Alloy for the FEM Simulation of the Beverage Can Manufacturing Process under Large Plastic Deformations

by Przemysław Wędrychowicz, Piotr Kustra, Marek Paćko and Andrij Milenin

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6408; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216408 - 26 Oct 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2710

Abstract

This paper discusses the development of a flow stress model to simulate the AA3104-H19 alloy under the conditions of large plastic deformations characteristic of the beverage can manufacturing process. This study focuses on the first five steps of this process: cupping, redrawing, ironing [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the development of a flow stress model to simulate the AA3104-H19 alloy under the conditions of large plastic deformations characteristic of the beverage can manufacturing process. This study focuses on the first five steps of this process: cupping, redrawing, ironing #1, ironing #2, ironing #3. These are the stages that reduce the thickness of the base material to the maximum, resulting in an effective strain of more than 2.0, unattainable in conventional plastometric tests. To solve this problem, the specific calculation-experimental method for the development of the flow stress model was proposed. Based on the FEM modeling of the technological process, data on the history of deformation and the trajectory of movement of the selected points of the material at all stages of the production were obtained. Microspecimens for the tensile tests were taken from the points of the beverage can wall that were determined in this way. The initial strain of each sample was taken from the FEM simulation. In this way, the tensile curves were obtained for the material points at different stages of the production. The processing of these curves allowed the creation of a flow stress model for large strains, corresponding to production conditions. The tensile tests were performed on a Zwick Z250 machine at room temperature and strain rate of 0.005 s⁻¹. The FEM-based algorithm for the determination of empirical coefficients of the analytical flow stress model is presented. The final flow stress model covers the range of effective strain from 0–2. Validation of the developed model based on the measured beverage can thicknesses showed that a flow stress model was developed that correctly and accurately describes the forming process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 6906 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Bonding Strength on Electromigration Failure in Cu–Cu Bumps

by Kai-Cheng Shie, Po-Ning Hsu, Yu-Jin Li, K. N. Tu and Chih Chen

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6394; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216394 - 25 Oct 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4094

Abstract

In microelectronic packaging technology for three-dimensional integrated circuits (3D ICs), Cu-to-Cu direct bonding appears to be the solution to solve the problems of Joule heating and electromigration (EM) in solder microbumps under 10

μ m

in diameter. However, EM will occur in Cu–Cu [...] Read more.

In microelectronic packaging technology for three-dimensional integrated circuits (3D ICs), Cu-to-Cu direct bonding appears to be the solution to solve the problems of Joule heating and electromigration (EM) in solder microbumps under 10

μ m

in diameter. However, EM will occur in Cu–Cu bumps when the current density is over

10^{6} A / {cm}^{2}

. The surface, grain boundary, and the interface between the Cu and TiW adhesion layer are the three major diffusion paths in EM tests, and which one may lead to early failure is of interest. This study showed that bonding strength affects the outcome. First, if the bonding strength is not strong enough to sustain the thermal mismatch of materials during EM tests, the bonding interface will fracture and lead to an open circuit of early failure. Second, if the bonding strength can sustain the bonding structure, voids will form at the passivation contact area between the Cu–Cu bump and redistribution layer (RDL) due to current crowding. When the void grows along the passivation interface and separates the Cu–Cu bump and RDL, an open circuit can occur, especially when the current density and temperature are severe. Third, under excellent bonding, when the voids at the contact area between the Cu–Cu bump and RDL do not merge together, the EM lifetime can be more than 5000 h. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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30 pages, 8753 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Contemporary Review of Aluminium MMC Developed through Stir-Casting Route

by Poonam Yadav, Alok Ranjan, Harish Kumar, Abhishek Mishra and Jonghun Yoon

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6386; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216386 - 25 Oct 2021

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 4752

Abstract

The growing demand for composite materials with improved properties is attracting a lot of attention from industries such as automotive, aerospace, military, aviation, and other manufacturing. Aluminium metal matrix composites (AMMCs), with various reinforcements such as continuous/discontinuous fibers, whiskers, and particulates, have captured [...] Read more.

The growing demand for composite materials with improved properties is attracting a lot of attention from industries such as automotive, aerospace, military, aviation, and other manufacturing. Aluminium metal matrix composites (AMMCs), with various reinforcements such as continuous/discontinuous fibers, whiskers, and particulates, have captured the attention due to their superior tribological, mechanical, and microstructural characteristics as compared to bare Al alloy. AMMCs have undergone extensive research and development with different reinforcements in order to obtain the materials with the desired characteristics. In this paper, we present a review on AMMCs produced through stir casting routes. This review focuses on the following aspects: (i) different reinforcing materials in AMMCs; (ii) microstructural study of reinforced metal matrix composites (MMCs) through stir casting. Both reinforcing micro- and nanoparticles are focused. Micro- and nanoreinforced AMMCs have the attractive properties of combination such asthe low-weight-to-high-strength rati and, low density; (iii) various tribological and mechanical properties with the consideration of different input parameters; (iv) outlook and perspective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 8258 KiB

Open AccessArticle

EBSD Characterization of the Microstructure of 7A52 Aluminum Alloy Joints Welded by Friction Stir Welding

by Xu Liu, Ruiling Jia, Huixia Zhang, Wenhua Cheng and Xiwei Zhai

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6362; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216362 - 24 Oct 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2624

Abstract

The microstructure and texture of materials significantly influence the mechanical properties and fracture behavior; the effect of microstructure in different zones of friction stir-welded joints of 7A52 aluminum alloy on fracture behavior was investigated in this paper. The microstructural characteristics of sections of [...] Read more.

The microstructure and texture of materials significantly influence the mechanical properties and fracture behavior; the effect of microstructure in different zones of friction stir-welded joints of 7A52 aluminum alloy on fracture behavior was investigated in this paper. The microstructural characteristics of sections of the welded joints were tested using the electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) technique. The results indicate that the fracture is located at the advancing side of the thermomechanically affected zone (AS-TMAZ) and the stir zone (SZ) interface. The AS-TMAZ microstructure is vastly different from the microstructure and texture of other areas. The grain orientation is disordered, and the grain shape is seriously deformed under the action of stirring force. The grain size grows unevenly under the input of friction heat, resulting in a large amount of recrystallization, and there is a significant difference in the Taylor factor between adjacent grains and the AS-TMAZ–SZ interface. On the contrary, there are fine and uniform equiaxed grains in the nugget zone, the microstructure is uniform, and the Taylor factor is small at adjacent grains. Therefore, the uneven transition of microstructure and texture in the AS-TMAZ and the SZ provide conditions for crack initiation, which become the weak point of mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 4872 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of TiAl Alloy as a Binder on Cubic Boron Nitride Composites

by Yuxi Liu, Wei Zhang, Yingbo Peng, Guojiang Fan and Bin Liu

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6335; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216335 - 23 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2260

Abstract

Owing to their extreme hardness, cubic boron nitride (cBN) composites are widely used in cutting applications. The performance of cBN composites is closely related to the characteristics of the binder. Therefore, novel binders must be developed to improve the performance of cBN composites. [...] Read more.

Owing to their extreme hardness, cubic boron nitride (cBN) composites are widely used in cutting applications. The performance of cBN composites is closely related to the characteristics of the binder. Therefore, novel binders must be developed to improve the performance of cBN composites. In the present work, TiAl intermetallics were used as binders to fabricate cBN composites by employing a high-temperature and high-pressure sintering method. The phase transformation, sintering reaction mechanism, thermal stability, and mechanical properties of the resultant cBN composites were investigated. It was found that during the sintering process, Ti atoms preferentially reacted with boron nitride particles, whereas Al atoms enriched and transformed into TiAl₃ phases and formed cBN/AlN, AlB₂/TiN, and TiB₂/TiAl₃-layered structures eventually. The composites maintained good oxidation resistance at 1200 °C. A decrease in the particle size of the TiAl binder improved the uniformity of particle size distribution and increased the flexural strength of the composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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15 pages, 7830 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Research of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Stainless and Structural Steel Dissimilar Welds

by Saulius Baskutis, Jolanta Baskutiene, Regita Bendikiene, Antanas Ciuplys and Karolis Dutkus

Materials 2021, 14(20), 6180; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14206180 - 18 Oct 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3054

Abstract

The present study utilized a metal inert gas welding (MIG) to make a dissimilar weld of stainless steel AISI 304, 314, 316L, 420 grades and a standard structural steel S355MC. It refers to a weld joining two materials from different alloy systems commonly [...] Read more.

The present study utilized a metal inert gas welding (MIG) to make a dissimilar weld of stainless steel AISI 304, 314, 316L, 420 grades and a standard structural steel S355MC. It refers to a weld joining two materials from different alloy systems commonly used in heat exchangers, pressure vessels, and power plant systems. Obviously, maintaining the integrity of such welds is of paramount importance to the safety issues. Therefore, detailed microscopic and experimental studies were performed to evaluate the reliability of these welds. The microscopic analysis did not reveal any presence of weld defects such as porosity or cracks, which ensured that MIG process parameters were properly selected. The performance of dissimilar welds was assessed by hardness and tensile tests. The hardness profiles revealed differences between austenitic and martensitic steel welds that later showed extremely high values in the heat-affected zone (HAZ), which caused fractures in this zone during tensile test. The welds of all austenitic steel grades withstood the tensile test, showing an average tensile strength of 472 MPa with fractures observed in the base metal zone. It made clear that the use of a filler rod 308LSI is suitable only for the austenitic stainless and structural steel dissimilar welds and not appropriate for martensitic-structural steel welds. The achieved results revealed that the higher hardness of the martensitic phase in the HAZ of AISI 420 is closely related with the formation of untempered coarse martensitic structure and higher carbon content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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8 pages, 2380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Fluidity of ZL205A Alloy with the Combined Addition of Al–Ti–C and La

by Guowei Zhang, Zhaojie Wang, Jingwei Niu, Hong Xu and Xiaoyan Ren

Materials 2021, 14(20), 6169; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14206169 - 18 Oct 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2070

Abstract

The effects of Al–Ti–C and La on the fluidity of a ZL205A alloy after separate and combined addition were studied by conducting a fluidity test. The fluidity of the ZL205A alloy first increased and then decreased with the increasing addition of Al–Ti–C and [...] Read more.

The effects of Al–Ti–C and La on the fluidity of a ZL205A alloy after separate and combined addition were studied by conducting a fluidity test. The fluidity of the ZL205A alloy first increased and then decreased with the increasing addition of Al–Ti–C and La; it peaked at 0.3% and 0.1% for Al–Ti–C and La, respectively. The combined addition of Al–Ti–C and La led to better fluidity, which increased by 74% compared with the base alloy. The affecting mechanism was clarified through microstructure characterization and a DSC test. The heterogeneous nucleation aided by Al–Ti–C and La, the number of particles in the melt, and the evolution of the solidification range all played a role. Based on the evolution of the fluidity and grain size, the optimal levels of Al–Ti–C and La leading to both high fluidity and small grain size were identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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15 pages, 632 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Finite Element Analysis and Artificial Neural Networks as Failure Pressure Prediction Tools for Corroded Pipelines

by Suria Devi Vijaya Kumar, Michael Lo Yin Kai, Thibankumar Arumugam and Saravanan Karuppanan

Materials 2021, 14(20), 6135; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14206135 - 15 Oct 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3306

Abstract

This paper discusses the capabilities of artificial neural networks (ANNs) when integrated with the finite element method (FEM) and utilized as prediction tools to predict the failure pressure of corroded pipelines. The use of conventional residual strength assessment methods has proven to produce [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the capabilities of artificial neural networks (ANNs) when integrated with the finite element method (FEM) and utilized as prediction tools to predict the failure pressure of corroded pipelines. The use of conventional residual strength assessment methods has proven to produce predictions that are conservative, and this, in turn, costs companies by leading to premature maintenance and replacement. ANNs and FEM have proven to be strong failure pressure prediction tools, and they are being utilized to replace the time-consuming methods and conventional codes. FEM is widely used to evaluate the structural integrity of corroded pipelines, and the integration of ANNs into this process greatly reduces the time taken to obtain accurate results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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10 pages, 3866 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis and Tribological Characterization of Ti₃SiC₂/ZnO Composites

by Rui Zhang, Wei Feng, Qi Wei and Shuai Ma

Materials 2021, 14(20), 6088; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14206088 - 14 Oct 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2068

Abstract

Dense Ti₃SiC₂/ZnO composites were sintered at different temperatures by spark plasma sintering (SPS). The effects of sintering temperature on composition and mechanical properties of Ti₃SiC₂/ZnO composites were studied. The tribological behaviors of Ti₃SiC [...] Read more.

Dense Ti₃SiC₂/ZnO composites were sintered at different temperatures by spark plasma sintering (SPS). The effects of sintering temperature on composition and mechanical properties of Ti₃SiC₂/ZnO composites were studied. The tribological behaviors of Ti₃SiC₂/ZnO composites/Inconel 718 alloy tribo-pairs at elevated temperature from 25 °C to 800 °C were discussed. The experimental results showed that the initial decomposition temperature of the Ti₃SiC₂/ZnO composite was 1150 °C, and Ti₃SiC₂ decomposed into TiC. When the decomposition temperature was higher than 1150 °C, the compositions of the Ti₃SiC₂/ZnO composites were Ti₃SiC₂, ZnO, and TiC. It was found that Ti₃SiC₂/ZnO composites had better self-lubricating performance than Ti₃SiC₂ at elevated temperature from 600 °C to 800 °C, which was owing to material transfers of tribo-pairs and sheared oxides generated by tribo-oxidation reactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 2298 KiB

Open AccessArticle

High-Performance Method of Recovery of Metals from EAF Dust—Processing without Solid Waste

by Stanisław Małecki, Krzysztof Gargul, Marek Warzecha, Grzegorz Stradomski, Artur Hutny, Mateusz Madej, Michał Dobrzyński, Ryszard Prajsnar and Grzegorz Krawiec

Materials 2021, 14(20), 6061; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14206061 - 14 Oct 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3519

Abstract

A highly effective method of the processing of steelmaking dust in an arc-resistant furnace has been presented. The aim of the research was to investigate the possibility of processing steelmaking dust in terms of waste minimization and selective recovery of valuable components. For [...] Read more.

A highly effective method of the processing of steelmaking dust in an arc-resistant furnace has been presented. The aim of the research was to investigate the possibility of processing steelmaking dust in terms of waste minimization and selective recovery of valuable components. For this purpose, an electric arc resistance furnace was used. Granulated steelmaking dust with reducer (coal dust) was the input material. The products of the process are zinc oxide, iron alloy and slag, with properties meeting high ecological requirements. The technology does not generate solid waste. Zinc recovery is over 99% and iron recovery over 98%. The content of heavy metals (Zn + Pb + Cu) in glassy slag is below 0.2%, which ensures very low leachability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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20 pages, 10801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Microstructure on Thermophysical Properties of Heat-Treated Duplex Steel

by Piotr Koniorczyk, Judyta Sienkiewicz, Janusz Zmywaczyk, Andrzej Dębski, Mateusz Zieliński and Marek Preiskorn

Materials 2021, 14(20), 6043; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14206043 - 13 Oct 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2911

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of heat treatments and resulting changes in microstructure on the thermophysical properties of commercial 1.4462 duplex stainless steel. Three types of heat treatment and a raw sample were used. In the first heat [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of heat treatments and resulting changes in microstructure on the thermophysical properties of commercial 1.4462 duplex stainless steel. Three types of heat treatment and a raw sample were used. In the first heat treatment, a duplex steel bar was annealed in an air atmosphere furnace for one hour at 1200 °C and then quickly cooled in water (1200 °C + water). The second heat treatment was the same as the first, but afterwards, the bar was annealed in an air atmosphere furnace for 4 h at 800 °C and then slowly cooled down in the furnace to room temperature (1200 °C + water + 800 °C). In the third heat treatment, the duplex steel bar was annealed in the furnace in an air atmosphere for one hour at 900 °C and then slowly cooled in the furnace to room temperature (900 °C). As a result, the weight percentages of ferrite and austenite in the samples achieved the following ratios: 75:25, 65:35 and 44:56. Light microscope examinations (LM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Vickers micro-hardness measurements and thermophysical studies using a laser flash apparatus (LFA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and push-rod dilatometry (DIL) were performed to reveal the microstructure and changes in thermophysical properties including thermal diffusivity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion and specific heat. Along with presenting these data, the paper, in brief, presents the applied investigation procedures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 3626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Ternary CuNiCo Metallic Nanoparticles Produced by Hydrogen Reduction

by Eliana Paola Marín Castaño, José Brant de Campos, Ivan Guillermo Solórzano-Naranjo and Eduardo de Albuquerque Brocchi

Materials 2021, 14(20), 6006; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14206006 - 12 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2099

Abstract

Different methods of producing nanostructured materials at the laboratory scale have been studied using a variety of physical and chemical techniques, though the challenge here is the homogeneous distribution of the elements which also depends on the precursor elements. This work thus focused [...] Read more.

Different methods of producing nanostructured materials at the laboratory scale have been studied using a variety of physical and chemical techniques, though the challenge here is the homogeneous distribution of the elements which also depends on the precursor elements. This work thus focused on the micro-analytical characterization of Cu–Ni–Co metallic nanoparticles produced by an alternative chemical route aiming to produce solid solution nanoparticles. This method was based on two steps: the co-formation of oxides by nitrates’ decomposition followed by their hydrogen reduction. Based on the initial composition of precursor nitrates, three homogeneous ternaries of the Ni, Cu and Co final alloy products were pre-established. Thus, the compositions in %wt of the synthesized alloy particles studied in this work are 24Cu–64Ni–12Co, 12Cu–64Ni–24Co and 10Cu–80Ni–10Co. Both precursor oxides and metallic powders were characterized by means of X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM/EDS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The results show that the synthesis procedure was successful since it produced a homogeneous material distributed in different particle sizes depending on the temperature applied in the reducing process. The final composition of the metallic product was consistent with what was theoretically expected. Resulting from reduction at the lower temperature of 300

^{°}

C, the main powder product consisted of particles with a spheroidal and eventually facetted morphology of 50 nm on average, which shared the same FCC crystal structure. Particles smaller than 100 nm in the Cu–Ni–Co alloy agglomerates were also observed. At a higher reduction temperature, the ternary powder developed robust particles of 1 micron in size, which are, in fact, the result of the coarsening of several nanoparticles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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17 pages, 8824 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of High Strength and Toughness Ship Plate Steel

by Dong Wang, Peng Zhang, Xingdong Peng, Ling Yan and Guanglong Li

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5886; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195886 - 8 Oct 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2942

Abstract

E36 ship plate steel was, respectively, produced by as rolling and normalizing process (ARNP), and EH36 and FH36 ship plate steel was produced by the thermo-mechanical control process (TMCP) with low carbon and multi-element micro-alloying. The microstructure of the three grades of ship [...] Read more.

E36 ship plate steel was, respectively, produced by as rolling and normalizing process (ARNP), and EH36 and FH36 ship plate steel was produced by the thermo-mechanical control process (TMCP) with low carbon and multi-element micro-alloying. The microstructure of the three grades of ship plate steel was composed of ferrite, pearlite, and carbides at room temperature. The average grain size on 1/4 width sections (i.e., longitudinal sections) of the three grades of ship plate steel was, respectively, 5.4 μm, 10.8 μm, and 11.9 μm. EH36 and FH36 ship plate steel had the higher strength due to precipitation and grain boundary strengthening effect, while the E36 ship plate steel had the lower strength due to the recovery phenomenon in the normalizing process. EH36 and FH36 ship plate steel had higher impact toughness due to lower carbon (C) and silicon (Si) content and higher manganese (Mn) content than E36 ship plate steel. E36 ship plate steel had the best plasticity due to the two strong {110} and {111} texture components. The fracture toughness K_J_0.2BL(30) values of E36 and EH36 and K_J_0.2BL value of FH36 ship plate steel were, respectively, obtained at 387 MPa·m^1/2, 464 MPa·m^1/2 and 443 MPa·m^1/2. EH36 and FH36 ship plate steel had higher K_J_0.2BL(30) due to lower C and Si and higher Mn, niobium (Nb), vanadium (V), and aluminum (Al) content than the E36 ship plate steel. The fatigue crack growth rate of E36 ship plate steel was higher than that of EH36 and FH36 ship plate steel due to its higher carbon content and obviously smaller grain size. The analysis results and data may provide a necessary experimental basis for quantitatively establishing the relationship between fracture toughness, yield strength and impact toughness, as well as the relationship between fatigue crack growth rate and both strength and fracture toughness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 6547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of Ultra-Fine-Grained W-TiC Alloys by a Simple Ball-Milling and Hydrogen Reduction Method

by Shaoting Lang, Ningbo Sun, Junhui Cao, Weixin Yu, Zhijun Yang and Shusen Hou

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5865; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195865 - 7 Oct 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2192

Abstract

In this paper, a simple method to fulfill the ideal microstructural design of particle reinforced tungsten (W) alloys with promising mechanical properties is presented. W-0.5 wt.% TiC powders with core-shell (TiC/W) structure are prepared by ball-milling and controlled hydrogen reduction processes. TEM observation [...] Read more.

In this paper, a simple method to fulfill the ideal microstructural design of particle reinforced tungsten (W) alloys with promising mechanical properties is presented. W-0.5 wt.% TiC powders with core-shell (TiC/W) structure are prepared by ball-milling and controlled hydrogen reduction processes. TEM observation demonstrates that the nano TiC particles are well coated by tungsten. The W-TiC powders are sintered by spark plasma sintering (SPS) under 1600 °C. The sintered microstructures are characterized by FESEM and TEM. It is found that the W-0.5TiC alloys obtain an ultra-fine-sized tungsten grain of approximately 0.7 μm. The TiC particles with the original nano sizes are uniformly distributed both in tungsten grain interiors and at tungsten grain boundaries with a high number density. No large agglomerates of TiC particles are detected in the microstructure. The average diameter of the TiC particles in the tungsten matrix is approximately 47.1 nm. The mechanical tests of W-0.5 TiC alloy show a significantly high microhardness and bending fracture strength of 785 Hv_0.2 and 1132.7 MPa, respectively, which are higher than the values obtained in previous works. These results indicate that the methods used in our work are very promising to fabricate particle-dispersion-strengthened tungsten-based alloys with high performances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 55793 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ultrashort Sintering and Near Net Shaping of Zr-Based AMZ4 Bulk Metallic Glass

by Łukasz Żrodowski, Rafał Wróblewski, Tomasz Choma, Tomasz Rygier, Marcin Rosiński, Bartosz Morończyk, Maweja Kasonde, Marcin Leonowicz, Jakub Jaroszewicz, Mateusz Ostrysz, Wojciech Łacisz, Piotr Błyskun and Karolina Pomian

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5862; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195862 - 7 Oct 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3520

Abstract

The GeniCore Upgraded Field Assisted Sintering Technology U-FAST was applied to the sintering of a commercial Zr-based bulk metallic glass powder AMZ4. The XRD, SEM and DSC analysis of the sintered compacts showed the benefit of the U-FAST method as an enabler for [...] Read more.

The GeniCore Upgraded Field Assisted Sintering Technology U-FAST was applied to the sintering of a commercial Zr-based bulk metallic glass powder AMZ4. The XRD, SEM and DSC analysis of the sintered compacts showed the benefit of the U-FAST method as an enabler for the production of fully amorphous samples with 100% relative density when sintering at 420 °C/480 s (693 K/480 s) and 440 °C/ 60 s (713 K/480 s). The hardness values for fully amorphous samples, over HV1 519, surpass cast materials and 1625 MPa compressive strengths are comparable to commercial cast products. The advantage of the U-FAST technology in this work is attributed to the high heating and cooling rates inherent to ultra-short pulses, which allow to maintain metastable structures and achieve better temperature control during the process. Increasing sintering temperature and time led to the crystallization of the materials. The geometry and material of the dies and punch determine the thermal inertia and pressure distribution inside the compacts, thus affecting the properties of the near net shape NNS compacts made using the U-FAST device. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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37 pages, 6439 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on the High Temperature Strengthening Mechanisms of High Entropy Superalloys (HESA)

by Malefane Joele and Wallace Rwisayi Matizamhuka

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5835; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195835 - 6 Oct 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5071

Abstract

The studies following HEA inceptions were apparently motivated to search for single-phase solid solution over intermetallic phases, accordingly made possible by the concept of high configurational entropy. However, it was realised that the formation of intermetallic phases in HEAs is prevalent due to [...] Read more.

The studies following HEA inceptions were apparently motivated to search for single-phase solid solution over intermetallic phases, accordingly made possible by the concept of high configurational entropy. However, it was realised that the formation of intermetallic phases in HEAs is prevalent due to other criterions that determine stable phases. Nonetheless, recent efforts have been directed towards attributes of microstructural combinations. In this viewpoint, the techniques used to predict microstructural features and methods of microstructural characterisation are elucidated in HESA fields. The study further analyses shortcomings regarding the design approaches of HESAs. A brief history is given into how HESAs were developed since their birth, to emphasize the evaluation techniques used to elucidate high temperature properties of HESAs, and the incentive thereof that enabled further pursuit of HESAs in the direction of optimal microstructure and composition. The theoretical models of strengthening mechanisms in HEAs are explained. The impact of processing route on the HESAs performance is analysed from previous studies. Thereafter, the future of HESAs in the market is conveyed from scientific opinion. Previous designs of HEAs/HESAs were more based on evaluation experiments, which lead to an extended period of research and considerable use of resources; currently, more effort is directed towards computational and theoretical methods to accelerate the exploration of huge HEA composition space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 11751 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation Process and Phase Transformation of Al-5Ti-0.25C Master Alloy Adopting Ti Machining Chips

by Sanbo Li, Chunfang Zhao, Fei Wang, Maoliang Hu, Zesheng Ji and Sumio Sugiyama

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5783; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195783 - 3 Oct 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2166

Abstract

The refining performance of Al-Ti-C master alloys is substantially compromised by the inferior wettability between graphite and molten aluminum. In this paper, the Al-5Ti-0.25C master alloy was successfully prepared by reacting Ti machining chips, graphite, and molten aluminum. In order to determine a [...] Read more.

The refining performance of Al-Ti-C master alloys is substantially compromised by the inferior wettability between graphite and molten aluminum. In this paper, the Al-5Ti-0.25C master alloy was successfully prepared by reacting Ti machining chips, graphite, and molten aluminum. In order to determine a simple method of improving the wettability, the optimal preparation process and phase transformation of the Al-5Ti-0.25C master alloy were investigated using an optical microscope, X-ray diffractometer, and scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy dispersive spectrometer. The results show that the feeding method using a prefabricated block made from Ti chips, Al chips, and graphite effectively improves the wettability between graphite and molten aluminum and increases the recovery rate of graphite. When the reaction temperature is low (1223 K), the agglomeration of TiAl₃ is caused. When the reaction temperature is high (1373 K), the morphology of TiAl₃ changes from block-like to needle-like and increases its size. Further, a short reaction time (30 min) results in the incomplete dissolution of the Ti chips, while a long reaction time (90 min) causes the TiAl₃ to transform into needle-like morphologies. The microstructural observation of undissolved Ti chips shows that TiAl₃ and TiC are formed around it, which proves the transformation of Ti chips to TiAl₃ and TiC. In addition, the enrichment of TiC and Al₄C₃ was observed in the vicinity of TiAl₃, and a reaction model for the formation of TiC from the reaction of Al₄C₃ and TiAl₃ was presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 6011 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Formation of 14H-LPSO in Mg–9Gd–2Y–2Zn–0.5Zr Alloy during Heat Treatment

by Yunfang Liu, Yaqin Yang, Ming Yi, Jianmin Yu, Baocheng Li and Zhimin Zhang

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5758; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195758 - 2 Oct 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2383

Abstract

There is a new long-period stacking ordered structure in Mg–RE–Zn magnesium alloys, namely the LPSO phase, which can effectively improve the yield strength, elongation, and corrosion resistance of Mg alloys. According to different types of Mg–RE–Zn alloy systems, two transformation modes are involved [...] Read more.

There is a new long-period stacking ordered structure in Mg–RE–Zn magnesium alloys, namely the LPSO phase, which can effectively improve the yield strength, elongation, and corrosion resistance of Mg alloys. According to different types of Mg–RE–Zn alloy systems, two transformation modes are involved in the heat treatment transformation process. The first is the alloy without LPSO phase in the as-cast alloy, and the Mg_xRE phase changes to 14H-LPSO phase. The second is the alloy containing LPSO phase in the as-cast state, and the 14H-LPSO phase is obtained by the transformations of 6H, 18R, and 24R. The effects of different solution parameters on the second phase of Mg–9Gd–2Y–2Zn–0.5Zr alloy were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The precipitation mechanism of 14H-LPSO phase during solution treatment was further clarified. At a solution time of 13 h, the grain size increased rapidly initially and then decreased slightly with increasing solution temperature. The analysis of the volume fraction of the second phase and lattice constant showed that Gd and Y elements in the alloy precipitated from the matrix and formed 14H-LPSO phase after solution treatment at 490 °C for 13 h. At this time, the hardness of the alloy reached the maximum of 74.6 HV. After solution treatment at 500 °C for 13 h, the solid solution degree of the alloy increases, and the grain size and hardness of the alloy remain basically unchanged. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 4480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sizing the Depth and Width of Narrow Cracks in Real Parts by Laser-Spot Lock-In Thermography

by Mateu Colom, Javier Rodríguez-Aseguinolaza, Arantza Mendioroz and Agustín Salazar

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5644; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195644 - 28 Sep 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2372

Abstract

We present a complete characterization of the width and depth of a very narrow fatigue crack developed in an Al-alloy dog bone plate using laser-spot lock-in thermography. Unlike visible micrographs, which show many surface scratches, the thermographic image clearly identifies the presence of [...] Read more.

We present a complete characterization of the width and depth of a very narrow fatigue crack developed in an Al-alloy dog bone plate using laser-spot lock-in thermography. Unlike visible micrographs, which show many surface scratches, the thermographic image clearly identifies the presence of a single crack about 1.5 mm long. Once detected, we focus a modulated laser beam close to the crack and we record the temperature amplitude. By fitting the numerical model to the temperature profile across the crack, we obtain both the width and depth simultaneously, at the location of the laser spot. Repeating the process for different positions of the laser spot along the crack length, we obtain the distribution of the crack width and depth. We show that the crack has an almost constant depth (0.7 mm) and width (1.5 µm) along 0.7 mm and features a fast reduction in both quantities until the crack vanishes. The results prove the ability of laser-spot lock-in thermography to fully characterize quantitatively narrow cracks, even below 1 µm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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19 pages, 88572 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Sc and Zr Additions on Recrystallization Behavior and Intergranular Corrosion Resistance of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloys

by Peng Xia, Shuncheng Wang, Huilan Huang, Nan Zhou, Dongfu Song and Yiwang Jia

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5516; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195516 - 23 Sep 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3151

Abstract

The recrystallization and intergranular corrosion behaviors impacted by the additions of Sc and Zr in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys are investigated. The stronger effect of coherent Al₃(Sc_1−xZr_x) phases on pinning dislocation resulted in a lower degree of recrystallization in [...] Read more.

The recrystallization and intergranular corrosion behaviors impacted by the additions of Sc and Zr in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys are investigated. The stronger effect of coherent Al₃(Sc_1−xZr_x) phases on pinning dislocation resulted in a lower degree of recrystallization in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Sc-Zr alloy, while the subgrain boundaries can escape from the pinning of Al₃Zr phases and merge with each other, bringing about a higher degree of recrystallization in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Zr alloy. A low degree of recrystallization promotes the precipitation of grain boundary precipitates (GBPs) with a discontinuous distribution, contributing to the high corrosion resistance of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Sc-Zr alloy in the central layer. The primary Al₃(Sc_1−xZr_x) phase promotes recrystallization due to particle-stimulated nucleation (PSN), and acts as the cathode to stimulate an accelerated electrochemical process between the primary Al₃(Sc_1−xZr_x) particles and GBPs, resulting in a sharp decrease of the corrosion resistance in the surface layer of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Sc-Zr alloy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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17 pages, 36931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Synthesis of High-Purity γ-Phase Mesoporous Alumina with Excellent CO₂ Adsorption Performance via a Simple Method Using Industrial Aluminum Oxide as Raw Material

by Zhonglin Li, Ding Wang, Jialong Shen, Junxue Chen, Chengzhi Wu, Zizheng Qu, Kun Luo, Zhengbing Meng and Yibing Li

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5465; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195465 - 22 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3254

Abstract

To mitigate the global greenhouse effect and the waste of carbon dioxide, a chemical raw material, high-purity γ-phase mesoporous alumina (MA) with excellent CO₂ adsorption performance was synthesized by the direct aging method and ammonium salt substitution method. With this process, not [...] Read more.

To mitigate the global greenhouse effect and the waste of carbon dioxide, a chemical raw material, high-purity γ-phase mesoporous alumina (MA) with excellent CO₂ adsorption performance was synthesized by the direct aging method and ammonium salt substitution method. With this process, not only can energy consumption and time be shortened to a large extent but the final waste can also be recycled to the mother liquor by adding calcium hydroxide. Reaction conditions, i.e., pH value, calcination temperature, and desodium agent, were investigated in detail with the aid of X-ray fluorescence spectrum (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) and Barret-Joyner-Hallender (BJH) methods, nonlocal density functional theory (NLDFT), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), temperature-programmed desorption of CO₂ (CO₂-TPD), and presented CO₂ adsorption measurement. The results of this study are summarized as follows: the impurity content of the MA synthesized under optimal conditions is less than 0.01%, and its total removal rate of impurities is 99.299%. It was found that the MA adsorbent has a large specific surface area of 377.8 m²/g, pore volume of 0.55 cm³/g, and its average pore diameter is 3.1 nm. Under the condition of a gas flow rate of 20 cm³/min, its CO₂ adsorption capacity is 1.58 mmol/g, and after 8 times of cyclic adsorption, the amount of CO₂ adsorption remained basically unchanged, both of which indicate that the material has excellent adsorption properties and can be widely used for the adsorption of carbon dioxide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 5705 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Analysis of Cold-Cracking Ratio for Flux-Cored Arc Steel Welds Using Y- and y-Grooves

by Hyunbin Nam, Jaeseok Yoo, Kwanghee Yun, Guo Xian, Hanji Park, Namkyu Kim, Sangwoo Song and Namhyun Kang

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5349; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185349 - 16 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2759

Abstract

This study investigates various factors that influence the cold-cracking ratio (CCR) of flux-cored arc welds through Y- and y-groove tests. Factors affecting the CCR include the alloy component, diffusible hydrogen content, microstructure, hardness, and groove shape. In weld metals (WMs; WM375-R and WM375-B) [...] Read more.

This study investigates various factors that influence the cold-cracking ratio (CCR) of flux-cored arc welds through Y- and y-groove tests. Factors affecting the CCR include the alloy component, diffusible hydrogen content, microstructure, hardness, and groove shape. In weld metals (WMs; WM375-R and WM375-B) of a low-strength grade, the diffusible hydrogen content has a more significant effect on the CCR than the carbon equivalent (C_eq) and microstructure. However, the combined effects of the microstructure and diffusible hydrogen content on the CCR are important in high-strength-grade WM. The CCR of the WM increased upon increasing C_eq and the strength grade because hard martensite and bainite microstructures were formed. Moreover, y-groove testing of the 500 MPa grade WM revealed a more significant CCR than that of the 375 MPa grade WM. Therefore, in high-strength-grade WMs, it is necessary to select the groove shape based on the morphology in the real welds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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18 pages, 6402 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Experimental Analyses of Hybrid Piston Rods Used in Hydraulic Cylinders under Axial Load

by Praveen Kumar S P and Seok-Soon Lee

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(18), 8552; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188552 - 15 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4999

Abstract

Composite hydraulic cylinders are used to reduce the weight of construction equipment such as aerial work platforms or excavators. The weight is compensated by manufacturing hydraulic cylinders from Carbon Fiber Reinsforced Plastic (CFRP), but this is expensive. Therefore, this study investigated a hybrid [...] Read more.

Composite hydraulic cylinders are used to reduce the weight of construction equipment such as aerial work platforms or excavators. The weight is compensated by manufacturing hydraulic cylinders from Carbon Fiber Reinsforced Plastic (CFRP), but this is expensive. Therefore, this study investigated a hybrid hydraulic cylinder, which is a combination of CFRP and steel, considering both performance and cost. The conventional hydraulic cylinder rods are made of steel, which can prevent failure due to buckling under push load (Push) or failure under alternating push–pull load (Push–Pull) or pull only. In this paper, we discuss how the failure threshold for these two mechanisms can be increased by making the piston rod from a hybrid material. In order to develop this lightweight hybrid piston rod for hydraulic cylinders that meets the buckling strength requirements of the original steel rod, CFRP is used as a substitute, which has significant buckling strength against compressive loading and, most importantly, is lighter than steel. The substitution is done either by replacing steel completely with CFRP or by reducing the volume of steel and sheathing it with CFRP. Numerical and experimental studies are carried out to understand the strength and behavior of piston rods when they are replaced by different combinations of composite materials for the given load. For this study, two different piston rod designs with various design parameters were considered, and their respective behavior under loading was discussed. The effect of compressive loads on CFRP wrapped steel parts and buckling strength as a function of fiber orientation, stacking angle and number of CFRP layers was investigated using experiments. The study demonstrated the usefulness of steel-CFRP composites to reduce weight and their influence on buckling load in hydraulic cylinders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 5517 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Internal Crack Initiation and Growth Starting from Artificially Generated Defects in Additively Manufactured Ti6Al4V Specimen in the VHCF Regime

by Carsten Wickmann, Christopher Benz, Horst Heyer, Kerstin Witte-Bodnar, Jan Schäfer and Manuela Sander

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5315; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185315 - 15 Sep 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2479

Abstract

The aim of the present work was to investigate the ‘fine granular area’ (FGA) formation based on artificially generated internal defects in additively manufactured Ti6Al4V specimens in the early stage of fatigue crack growth in the ‘very high cycle fatigue’ (VHCF) regime. Fatigue [...] Read more.

The aim of the present work was to investigate the ‘fine granular area’ (FGA) formation based on artificially generated internal defects in additively manufactured Ti6Al4V specimens in the early stage of fatigue crack growth in the ‘very high cycle fatigue’ (VHCF) regime. Fatigue tests were performed with constant amplitude at pure tension-compression loading (R = −1) using an ultrasonic fatigue testing setup. Failed specimens were investigated using optical microscopy, high-resolution ‘scanning electron microscopy’ (SEM), and ‘focused ion beam’ (FIB) techniques. Further, the paper introduces alternative proposals to identify the FGA layer beneath the fracture surfaces in terms of the ‘cross section polishing’ (CSP) technique and metallic grindings with special attention paid to the crack origin, the surrounding microstructure, and the expansion of the nanograin layer beneath the fracture surface. Different existing fracture mechanical approaches were applied to evaluate if an FGA formation is possible. Moreover, the results were discussed in comparison to the experimental findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 4494 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Pre-Oxidation and Resulting Oxidation Mechanism and Kinetics of Mo-9Si-8B Alloy

by Cheng Wang, Qiuliang Li, Zhenping Guo, Xiangrong Li, Xiangyu Ding, Xin Li, Zhuoyue Li and Bin Li

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5309; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185309 - 15 Sep 2021

Viewed by 1992

Abstract

Molybdenum silicon boron alloy is regarded as the next generation of superalloy that is expected to replace nickel-based superalloys. However, the high-temperature oxidation resistance of Mo-Si-B alloy has always been an issue worth studying. In this study, Mo-9Si-8B alloy was prepared via a [...] Read more.

Molybdenum silicon boron alloy is regarded as the next generation of superalloy that is expected to replace nickel-based superalloys. However, the high-temperature oxidation resistance of Mo-Si-B alloy has always been an issue worth studying. In this study, Mo-9Si-8B alloy was prepared via a plasma oscillatory pressure sintering process and pre-oxidized at 1300 °C while maintaining a certain balance of mechanical and oxidation properties. The influence of the oxide protective layer on its performance at high temperature of 1150 °C was explored, the micro-mechanism of its performance and its failure mode of the hinge-locking mechanism was illustrated, and finally, its oxidation kinetics was inferred. In conclusion, pre-oxidized Mo-9Si-8B (at.%) alloy did play a role in delaying the oxidation process during the initial period of cyclic oxidation. However, with the increase of cyclic oxidation time, the improvement of high-temperature oxidation resistance was limited. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 6793 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of Subrapid Solidification and Secondary Cooling for the Strip Casting of IF Steel

by Wanlin Wang, Song Mao, Hualong Zhang, Cheng Lu and Peisheng Lyu

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5274; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185274 - 13 Sep 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2427

Abstract

A combination of droplet solidification tester and confocal laser scanning microscope was used to simulate subrapid solidification and secondary cooling process pertinent to the strip casting. The IF steel droplet had a delamination structure and the bottom part went through sub-rapid solidification. During [...] Read more.

A combination of droplet solidification tester and confocal laser scanning microscope was used to simulate subrapid solidification and secondary cooling process pertinent to the strip casting. The IF steel droplet had a delamination structure and the bottom part went through sub-rapid solidification. During secondary cooling, γ/α transformation mechanism belonged to interface-controlled massive transformation and the ferrite grains grew quickly. With the increase of cooling rate, the γ/α transformation temperature decreased and the incubation period and phase transformation duration reduced. The hardness showed a slight increase due to fine-grain strengthening. With coiling temperature increasing from 600 °C to 800 °C, the grain size became larger, precipitates became coarse, and defects in grain were recovered. Consequently, the hardness decreased. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 2987 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Properties of Mg-Al-Ca-Mn Alloy with High Ca/Al Ratio Fabricated by Hot Extrusion

by Aimin Chu, Yuping Zhao, Rafi ud-din, Hairong Hu, Qian Zhi and Zerui Wang

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5230; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185230 - 11 Sep 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2581

Abstract

Mg-Al-Ca-Mn alloys with Ca/Al ≥ 1 of AX33, AX44, and AX55 were prepared by combining three processes of water-cooling semi-continuous cast, homogenization heat treatment, and hot extrusion. The as-fabricated alloys translated into composites consisting of α-Mg solid solution + granular Al₂Ca. [...] Read more.

Mg-Al-Ca-Mn alloys with Ca/Al ≥ 1 of AX33, AX44, and AX55 were prepared by combining three processes of water-cooling semi-continuous cast, homogenization heat treatment, and hot extrusion. The as-fabricated alloys translated into composites consisting of α-Mg solid solution + granular Al₂Ca. These alloys exhibited some favourable properties such as a tensile strength of 324~350 MPa at room temperature and 187~210 MPa at elevated temperature of 423 K, an ignition temperature of 1292~1344 K, and so on. Variation trend between performance and content of Al and Ca is given in this paper. The result indicated that the emerged second-phase Al₂Ca in the alloys was beneficial to the improvement in mechanical properties, heat resistance, flame retardation, and corrosion resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 10763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Molecular Dynamics Simulations Study of the Influence of Prestrain on the Pop-In Behavior and Indentation Size Effect in Cu Single Crystals

by Rong-Guang Xu, Hengxu Song, Yongsheng Leng and Stefanos Papanikolaou

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5220; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185220 - 10 Sep 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2938

Abstract

The pop-in effect in nanoindentation of metals represents a major collective dislocation phenomenon that displays sensitivity in the local surface microstructure and residual stresses. To understand the deformation mechanisms behind pop-ins in metals, large scale molecular dynamics simulations are performed to investigate the [...] Read more.

The pop-in effect in nanoindentation of metals represents a major collective dislocation phenomenon that displays sensitivity in the local surface microstructure and residual stresses. To understand the deformation mechanisms behind pop-ins in metals, large scale molecular dynamics simulations are performed to investigate the pop-in behavior and indentation size effect in undeformed and deformed Cu single crystals. Tensile loading, unloading, and reloading simulations are performed to create a series of samples subjected to a broad range of tensile strains with/without pre-existing dislocations. The subsequent nanoindentation simulations are conducted to investigate the coupled effects of prestrain and the presence of resulting dislocations and surface morphology, as well as indenter size effects on the mechanical response in indentation processes. Our work provides detailed insights into the deformation mechanisms and microstructure-property relationships of nanoindentation in the presence of residual stresses and strains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 10008 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Microstructure, Mechanical Properties and Erosion Characteristics of Al-Si Alloy Manufactured by Continuous Casting Direct Rolling Process

by Bo-Chin Huang, Kai-Chieh Chang and Fei-Yi Hung

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(18), 8351; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188351 - 9 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2810

Abstract

Al-Si alloys exhibit promising wear resistance, thus being mainly employed to weld Al alloy parts and processed into components of equipment. During the new continuous casting direct rolling (CCDR) process, the raw material gradually cools and solidifies, simultaneously plastically deformed. Hence, the materials [...] Read more.

Al-Si alloys exhibit promising wear resistance, thus being mainly employed to weld Al alloy parts and processed into components of equipment. During the new continuous casting direct rolling (CCDR) process, the raw material gradually cools and solidifies, simultaneously plastically deformed. Hence, the materials manufactured through the CCDR process presented an unparalleled microstructure. The experimental results indicated that the strength of the CCDR Al-Si alloy can be increased through cold rolling. A two-stage heat treatment (solid solution and aging treatment) was introduced to improve the ductility and satisfy the industrial application. Furthermore, the erosion wear characteristics and fracture mechanism of the CCDR Al-Si alloy dominated by the ductility were confirmed. Both cold rolling specimens (FR) and those with heat treatment (FRH) showed greater wear resistance than as-manufactured (F). The FR specimens exhibited greater wear resistance owing to a higher Al matrix strength at a lower impact angle; on the other hand, at a higher impact angle, the FRH specimens with a softer Al matrix presented better wear resistance due to the formation of a lip structure to reduce material removal. The TEM results confirmed that the nanoscale grains formation was induced in the erosion-affected region and affected the Si concentration. Conclusively, the heat-treated CCDR Al-Si alloy possessed excellent erosion resistance and workability, which can serve as a reference processed as wear-resistant mechanical parts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 3549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flame Retardancy Properties and Physicochemical Characteristics of Polyurea-Based Coatings Containing Flame Retardants Based on Aluminum Hydroxide, Resorcinol Bis(Diphenyl Phosphate), and Tris Chloropropyl Phosphate

by Wojciech Dukarski, Piotr Krzyżanowski, Marcin Gonsior and Iwona Rykowska

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5168; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185168 - 9 Sep 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3201

Abstract

Polyurea is a synthetic material made by the reaction of isocyanate and polymer blend-containing amines. Due to its outstanding mechanical properties and fast curing, polyurea-based coatings have found dozens of applications, including waterproofing and anti-corrosion coatings. Further development of this material can create [...] Read more.

Polyurea is a synthetic material made by the reaction of isocyanate and polymer blend-containing amines. Due to its outstanding mechanical properties and fast curing, polyurea-based coatings have found dozens of applications, including waterproofing and anti-corrosion coatings. Further development of this material can create a flame-retardant product, a good alternative for common products available on the market, such as intumescent coatings. To improve the flame retardancy of polyurea, several flame retardants were investigated. The influence of aluminum hydroxide, resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) (RDP), and tris chloropropyl phosphate (TCPP) on flame retardancy and morphology was studied. The following methods were used: infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, limiting oxygen index, and tensile strength. The examinations mentioned above showed the improvement of flame-retardancy of polyurea for two products: chlorinated organophosphate and organophosphate. Nevertheless, using the chlorinated organophosphate additive caused a rapid deterioration of mechanical properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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15 pages, 14310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Push-Out Method for Micro Measurements of Interfacial Strength in Aluminium Alloy Matrix Composites

by Rafał Kozera, Anna Boczkowska, Zuzanna D. Krawczyk, Paulina Kozera, Maciej Spychalski, Marcin Malek and Robert Kosturek

Materials 2021, 14(17), 5092; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14175092 - 6 Sep 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2638

Abstract

The main goal of this work was the evaluation of the interfacial strength of the carbon fibres/aluminium matrix interface dependently on the utilised composite fabrication method, namely high pressure die casting and gas pressure infiltration. In addition, the influence of a Ni-P coating [...] Read more.

The main goal of this work was the evaluation of the interfacial strength of the carbon fibres/aluminium matrix interface dependently on the utilised composite fabrication method, namely high pressure die casting and gas pressure infiltration. In addition, the influence of a Ni-P coating on the C-fibres was investigated. The proposed measurements of the interfacial strength were carried out by means of the “push-out” method. The interfacial strength of the samples fabricated using the high-pressure infiltration method average between 19.03 MPa and 45.34 MPa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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15 pages, 8975 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Different Substrates on the Formability and Densification Behaviors of Cemented Carbide Processed by Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Decheng Liu, Wen Yue, Jiajie Kang and Chengbiao Wang

Materials 2021, 14(17), 5027; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14175027 - 2 Sep 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2367

Abstract

Cemented carbide materials are widely applied in cutting tools, drill tools, and mold fabrication due to their superior hardness and wear resistance. Producing cemented carbide parts via the laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) method has the advantage of fabricating complex structures with a [...] Read more.

Cemented carbide materials are widely applied in cutting tools, drill tools, and mold fabrication due to their superior hardness and wear resistance. Producing cemented carbide parts via the laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) method has the advantage of fabricating complex structures with a rapid manufacturing speed; however, they were underdeveloped due to their low density and crack formation on the blocks. This work studied the effect of different substrates including 316L substrates, Ni200 substrates, and YG15 substrates on the forming quality of WC-17Co parts fabricated by L-PBF, with the aim of finding the optimal substrate for fabrication. The results revealed that the Ni200 substrates had a better wettability for the single tracks formation than other substrates, and bonding between the built block and the Ni200 substrate was firm without separation during processing with a large range of laser energy inputs. This guaranteed the fabrication of a relatively dense block with fewer cracks. Although the high laser energy input that led to fine crack formation on the blocks formed on the Ni200 substrate, it was found to be better suited to restricting cracks than other substrates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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10 pages, 17642 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Green and Short Preparation of CeO₂ Nanoparticles with Large Specific Surface Area by Spray Pyrolysis

by Yongfu Wu, Hong Li, Xue Bian, Wenyuan Wu, Zhenfeng Wang and Yubao Liu

Materials 2021, 14(17), 4963; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14174963 - 31 Aug 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2199

Abstract

Green and short preparation of CeO₂ nanoparticles with large specific surface area from rare earth extraction (CeCl₃) was successfully achieved by spray pyrolysis (SP). In this method, a precursor solution is first prepared by mixing CeCl₃, C₆ [...] Read more.

Green and short preparation of CeO₂ nanoparticles with large specific surface area from rare earth extraction (CeCl₃) was successfully achieved by spray pyrolysis (SP). In this method, a precursor solution is first prepared by mixing CeCl₃, C₆H₈O, and H₂O in the requisite quantities. Subsequently, the precursor consisting of a mixture of CeO₂ and C was obtained by SP method by using the precursor solution. Finally, the calcination at 500 °C~800 °C in air for two hours to transform the precursor to CeO₂ nanoparticles. Thermodynamic analysis and experimental studies were performed to determine the optimal SP temperature and citric acid amount. The results indicated that the maximum specific surface area (59.72 m²/g) of CeO₂ nanoparticles were obtained when the SP temperature was 650 °C and the molar ratio of citric acid to CeCl₃ was 1.5. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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50 pages, 56993 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Diagnostics Methodologies for Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes and Products

by Teng Yang, Sangram Mazumder, Yuqi Jin, Brian Squires, Mathew Sofield, Mangesh V. Pantawane, Narendra B. Dahotre and Arup Neogi

Materials 2021, 14(17), 4929; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14174929 - 30 Aug 2021

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6743

Abstract

Additive manufacturing technologies based on metal are evolving into an essential advanced manufacturing tool for constructing prototypes and parts that can lead to complex structures, dissimilar metal-based structures that cannot be constructed using conventional metallurgical techniques. Unlike traditional manufacturing processes, the metal AM [...] Read more.

Additive manufacturing technologies based on metal are evolving into an essential advanced manufacturing tool for constructing prototypes and parts that can lead to complex structures, dissimilar metal-based structures that cannot be constructed using conventional metallurgical techniques. Unlike traditional manufacturing processes, the metal AM processes are unreliable due to variable process parameters and a lack of conventionally acceptable evaluation methods. A thorough understanding of various diagnostic techniques is essential to improve the quality of additively manufactured products and provide reliable feedback on the manufacturing processes for improving the quality of the products. This review summarizes and discusses various ex-situ inspections and in-situ monitoring methods, including electron-based methods, thermal methods, acoustic methods, laser breakdown, and mechanical methods, for metal additive manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 5181 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Oxidation Mechanism of Al-Sn Bearing Alloys

by Qiaoqin Guo, Jihui Chen, Jianping Li, Yongchun Guo, Zhong Yang, Wei Yang, Dapeng Xu and Bo Yang

Materials 2021, 14(17), 4845; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14174845 - 26 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2278

Abstract

Oxidation of Al-Sn bearing alloy occurs during production, processing and use, which reduces both alloy performance and performance of coatings applied to the alloy surface. Therefore, the oxidation mechanism of Al-Sn bearing alloy is studied at 25, 180, 300, and 500 °C. The [...] Read more.

Oxidation of Al-Sn bearing alloy occurs during production, processing and use, which reduces both alloy performance and performance of coatings applied to the alloy surface. Therefore, the oxidation mechanism of Al-Sn bearing alloy is studied at 25, 180, 300, and 500 °C. The oxidation morphologies of the alloy were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and the oxidation products were determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The oxidation weight gain curves were obtained by thermogravimetric analysis. The experimental results show that: Al-Sn bearing alloy is oxidized quickly to form Al₂O₃. As the oxidation temperature increases, Sn phase start to precipitate along the grain boundary and form networked spheroids of Sn on the alloy surface. The amount of precipitation increases with further increase of the oxidation temperature. Cracks and holes are left in the alloy. The oxide layer is mainly composed of Sn, SnO₂, and Al₂O₃. At 25 °C, oxidation rate of Al-Sn alloy approach zero. At 180, 300, and 500 °C, the oxidation rate increases quickly conforming to a power function, and eventually remains stable at about 3 × 10⁻⁶ mg·mm⁻²·s⁻¹. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 11236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wetting and Spreading of AgCuTi on Selective Laser-Melted Ti-6Al-4V

by Lujing Hao, Jiankun Liu and Yulong Li

Materials 2021, 14(17), 4804; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14174804 - 25 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2533

Abstract

Selective laser melting (SLM) can be used to manufacture complex parts, however, it is difficult to make large parts due to the size limitation of the SLM equipment. In application, smaller selective laser-melted (SLMed) Ti-6Al-4V (TC4) parts can be brazed or welded to [...] Read more.

Selective laser melting (SLM) can be used to manufacture complex parts, however, it is difficult to make large parts due to the size limitation of the SLM equipment. In application, smaller selective laser-melted (SLMed) Ti-6Al-4V (TC4) parts can be brazed or welded to form larger components. In the brazing, AgCuTi is often used to braze TC4. However, the wettability of AgCuTi on the SLMed TC4 should be evaluated before joining the SLMed TC4 parts. As a result, wetting and spreading tests and brazing experiments should be undertaken to successfully join the SLMed TC4 parts. In this study, a LINKAM TS 1500 high-temperature hot stage was used to test the brazability of the AgCuTi on the surface of SLMed TC4. Different temperatures and dwell times were used: (i) 850 °C 900 °C and 950 °C, holding for 120 s, were used to study the temperature effects; (ii) 20 s, 120 s and 200 s were used at 850 °C to study the dwell time effects. The R~t model was used to describe the wetting and spreading process. The results of this study can provide basic data for the joining of SLMed TC4 in industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 9094 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation on Microstructure and Properties of Duplex Stainless Steel Welds by Underwater Laser Welding with Different Shielding Gas

by Kai Wang, Changlei Shao, Xiangdong Jiao, Jialei Zhu, Zhihai Cai and Congwei Li

Materials 2021, 14(17), 4774; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14174774 - 24 Aug 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3426

Abstract

Taking S32101 duplex stainless steel as the research object, underwater laser wire filling welding technology was used for U-groove filling welding. The influence of different shielding gas compositions on the ferrite content, microstructure, mechanical properties and pitting corrosion resistance was studied by simulating [...] Read more.

Taking S32101 duplex stainless steel as the research object, underwater laser wire filling welding technology was used for U-groove filling welding. The influence of different shielding gas compositions on the ferrite content, microstructure, mechanical properties and pitting corrosion resistance was studied by simulating a water depth of 15 m in the hyperbaric chamber. The results show that, under the same process parameters, the size and proportion of austenite in the weld when using pure nitrogen as the shielding gas are larger than those protected by other shielding gases. In a mixed shielding gas, the increase in nitrogen content has little effect on the strength and toughness of the weld. Regardless of the shielding gas used, the base metal was the weakest part of the weld. At the same time, intermetallic inclusions have an adverse effect on the impact toughness of the weld. The pitting corrosion resistance of the welds depends on the Cr₂N content in the heat-affected zone. The precipitation and enrichment of Cr₂N causes local chromium deficiency, which is the main factor for the weak pitting corrosion ability of the heat-affected zone. Pure nitrogen protection has a better corrosion resistance than other gas protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 1486 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Overview of an Experimental Program for Development of Yield Surfaces Tracing Method

by Jan Štefan, Slavomír Parma, René Marek, Jiří Plešek, Constantin Ciocanel and Heidi Feigenbaum

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(16), 7606; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11167606 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2413

Abstract

This paper develops an experimental technique to evaluate the initial yield surfaces of metallic materials, as well as to study their evolution during plastic flow. The experimental tracing of yield surfaces is necessary for deriving and calibrating more robust phenomenological models of directional [...] Read more.

This paper develops an experimental technique to evaluate the initial yield surfaces of metallic materials, as well as to study their evolution during plastic flow. The experimental tracing of yield surfaces is necessary for deriving and calibrating more robust phenomenological models of directional distortional hardening. Such models can be used to characterize the behavior of structures experiencing complicated and demanding loading modes, such as multiaxial ratcheting. The experimental technique developed in this work uses thin-walled tubular specimens, along with a servo-hydraulic machine, under various modes of tension/compression and torque. Identification of the onset of plastic flow is based on a small proof equivalent plastic strain evaluated from the outputs of a contact biaxial extensometer firmly attached to a specimen surface. This allows for evaluation of both the initial yield surface, as well as theevolved yield surface after a plastic prestrain. Throughout a test, continuous and fully automatized evaluation of elastic moduli and proof plastic strain is assured through algorithms written in C# language. The current technique is shown to provide promising results to effectively capture the yield surfaces of conventional metallic materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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19 pages, 8495 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Prospects of Ti-Base Lattice Infiltrated with Biodegradable Zn–2%Fe Alloy as a Structural Material for Osseointegrated Implants—In Vitro Study

by Noa Gabay, Tomer Ron, Razi Vago, Amnon Shirizly and Eli Aghion

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4682; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164682 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2669

Abstract

The term “osseointegrated implants” mainly relates to structural systems that contain open spaces, which enable osteoblasts and connecting tissue to migrate during natural bone growth. Consequently, the coherency and bonding strength between the implant and natural bone can be significantly increased, for example [...] Read more.

The term “osseointegrated implants” mainly relates to structural systems that contain open spaces, which enable osteoblasts and connecting tissue to migrate during natural bone growth. Consequently, the coherency and bonding strength between the implant and natural bone can be significantly increased, for example in operations related to dental and orthopedic applications. The present study aims to evaluate the prospects of a Ti–6Al–4V lattice, produced by selective laser melting (SLM) and infiltrated with biodegradable Zn2%Fe alloy, as an OI–TiZn system implant in in vitro conditions. This combined material structure is designated by this study as an osseointegrated implant (OI–TiZn) system. The microstructure of the tested alloys was examined both optically and using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The mechanical properties were assessed in terms of compression strength, as is commonly acceptable in cases of lattice-based structures. The corrosion performance was evaluated by immersion tests and electrochemical analysis in terms of potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), all in simulated physiological environments in the form of phosphate buffered saline (PBS) solution. The cytotoxicity was evaluated in terms of indirect cell viability. The results obtained demonstrate the adequate performance of the OI–TiZn system as a non-cytotoxic structural material that can maintain its mechanical integrity under compression, while presenting acceptable corrosion rate degradation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 23453 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of W Addition on Microstructure and Resistance to Brittle Cracking of TiB₂ Coatings Deposited by DCMS

by Edyta Chudzik-Poliszak, Łukasz Cieniek, Tomasz Moskalewicz, Kazimierz Kowalski, Agnieszka Kopia and Jerzy Smolik

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4664; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164664 - 18 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2421

Abstract

The aim of this work was to determine the influence of the tungsten addition to TiB₂ coatings on their microstructure and brittle cracking resistance. Four coatings of different compositions (0, 7, 15, and 20 at.% of W) were deposited by magnetron sputtering [...] Read more.

The aim of this work was to determine the influence of the tungsten addition to TiB₂ coatings on their microstructure and brittle cracking resistance. Four coatings of different compositions (0, 7, 15, and 20 at.% of W) were deposited by magnetron sputtering from TiB₂ and W targets. The coatings were investigated by the following methods: X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). All coatings had a homogeneous columnar structure with decreasing column width as the tungsten content increased. XRD and XPS analysis showed the presence of TiB₂ and nonstoichiometric TiBx phases with an excess or deficiency of boron depending on composition. The crystalline size decreased from 27 nm to 10 nm with increasing W content. The brittle cracking resistance improved with increasing content of TiBx phase with deficiency of B and decreasing crystalline size. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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15 pages, 5442 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Hardness of Spark Plasma Sintered Inconel 625-NbC Composites for High-Temperature Applications

by Adrian Graboś, Jan Huebner, Paweł Rutkowski, Shenghua Zhang, Yen-Ling Kuo, Dariusz Kata and Shigenari Hayashi

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4606; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164606 - 16 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2785

Abstract

The study focuses on obtaining Inconel 625-NbC composites for high-temperature applications, e.g., jet engines, waste-to-energy combusting systems or gas engine turbines, and characterizing them in terms of their microstructure and hardness improvement. Synthesis was performed utilizing Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) at 1150 °C [...] Read more.

The study focuses on obtaining Inconel 625-NbC composites for high-temperature applications, e.g., jet engines, waste-to-energy combusting systems or gas engine turbines, and characterizing them in terms of their microstructure and hardness improvement. Synthesis was performed utilizing Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) at 1150 °C under the load of 45 MPa in medium vacuum (under 10⁻³ MPa) for a total time of 60 min. Four sets of samples with different Inconel 625 to NbC weight ratios were prepared (5, 10, 20, and 30 wt.%), followed by a reference sample containing no ceramic reinforcement. Obtained materials were hot-rolled at 1150 °C with a 10% reduction step and later cut and polished to perform characterization utilizing scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) module and microhardness testing device equipped with Vickers indenter. Hardness was improved proportionally to NbC addition achieving an increase of up to 20% of reference values. Additional heat treatment was conducted on the hot-rolled samples at 1200 °C in an argon atmosphere to further observe the interaction between reinforcement and alloy. Their microstructure revealed the coarsening of precipitates within the metal matrix and partial reinforcement dissolution, which proved to be crucial to obtaining the highest quality composites with homogenous hardness improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 5162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recovery of Metals from Heat-Treated Printed Circuit Boards via an Enhanced Gravity Concentrator and High-Gradient Magnetic Separator

by Yushuai Xian, Youjun Tao, Fangyuan Ma and You Zhou

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4566; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164566 - 14 Aug 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2896

Abstract

The recovery and reuse of waste printed circuit boards (PCBs) has attracted more and more attention from global researchers, as recycling of waste PCB metals is of great significance to the rational utilization of metal material resources. This study puts forward a clean [...] Read more.

The recovery and reuse of waste printed circuit boards (PCBs) has attracted more and more attention from global researchers, as recycling of waste PCB metals is of great significance to the rational utilization of metal material resources. This study puts forward a clean and economical method in which enhanced gravity separation and wet high-gradient magnetic separation were combined to recover waste PCBs with heat treatment at a temperature of 240 °C. The heat treatment could improve the metal liberation effect of the PCBs, and the thermal behavior was measured by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The pyrolysis of the non-metal fraction (NMF) began around 300 °C, and the glass transition temperature of epoxy resin was 135.17 °C. The enhanced gravity separation technique was used for the separation of metals and NMF under the compound force field. The metals grade of the gravity concentrates fraction (GRF) was 82.97% under the optimal conditions, and the metals recovery reached 90.55%. A wet high-gradient magnetic separator was applied to classify the GRF into magnetic (MA) and non-magnetic (NMA) fractions, which could achieve iron and copper enrichment. After the three stages combined process, the copper and iron grades of the NMA and MA fractions were 70.17% and 73.42%, and the recovery reached 74.02% and 78.11%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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11 pages, 4001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Enhancement of Enargite Dissolution by Sodium Hypochlorite in Ammoniacal Solutions

by Lilian Velásquez-Yévenes, Hans Álvarez, Víctor Quezada and Antonio García

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4529; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164529 - 12 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2369

Abstract

The dissolution of both copper and arsenic from a copper concentrate was investigated in oxidative ammonia/ammonium solutions at moderate temperatures and atmospheric pressure. The main parameters studied were temperature, pH, concentrations of different ammonia salts, the presence of sodium hypochlorite, pretreatment with sodium [...] Read more.

The dissolution of both copper and arsenic from a copper concentrate was investigated in oxidative ammonia/ammonium solutions at moderate temperatures and atmospheric pressure. The main parameters studied were temperature, pH, concentrations of different ammonia salts, the presence of sodium hypochlorite, pretreatment with sodium chloride, and curing period. In all ammoniacal solutions studied, increasing the temperature enhanced the dissolution of copper, but the dissolution of arsenic remained marginal. Mixing the copper concentrate with sodium chloride and leaving it to rest for 72 h before leaching in ammoniacal solutions significantly increased the dissolution of copper and slightly increased the dissolution of arsenic from the concentrate. A maximum of 35% of Cu and 3.3% of As were extracted when ammonium carbonate was used as the lixiviant. The results show relatively rapid dissolution of the concentrate with the addition of sodium hypochlorite in ammonium carbonate solution, achieving a dissolution of up to 50% and 25% of copper and arsenic, respectively. A copper dissolution with a non-linear regression model was proposed, considering the effect of NaClO and NH₄Cl at 25 °C. These findings highlight the importance of using the correct anionic ligands for the ammonium ions and temperature to obtain a high dissolution of copper or arsenic. The results also showed that the curing time of the packed bed before the commencement of leaching appeared to be an important parameter to enhance the dissolution of copper and leave the arsenic in the residues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 2539 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Model of the Austenite Decomposition during Cooling of the Medium Carbon Steel Using LSTM Recurrent Neural Network

by Adam Kulawik, Joanna Wróbel and Alexey Mikhailovich Ikonnikov

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4492; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164492 - 10 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2432

Abstract

The motivation of the presented paper is the desire to create a universal tool to analyse the process of austenite decomposition during the cooling process of various steel grades. The presented analysis concerns the application of Recurrent Artificial Neural Networks (RANN) of the [...] Read more.

The motivation of the presented paper is the desire to create a universal tool to analyse the process of austenite decomposition during the cooling process of various steel grades. The presented analysis concerns the application of Recurrent Artificial Neural Networks (RANN) of the Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) type for the analysis of the transition path of the cooling curve. This type of network was selected due to its ability to predict events in time sequences. The proposed generalisation allows for the determination of the austenite transformation during the continuous cooling process for various cooling curves. As training data for the neural network, values determined from the macroscopic model based on the analysis of Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) diagrams were used. All relations and analyses used to build training/testing or validation sets are presented in the paper. The modelling with the use of LSTM network gives the possibility to determine the incremental changes of phase transformation (in a given time step) with the assumed changes of temperature resulting from the considered cooling rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 5818 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Properties of SUS304 Stainless Steel Joints Brazed with Electrodeposited Ni-Cr-P Alloy Coatings

by Shubin Liu, Ikuo Shohji, Tatsuya Kobayashi, Katsuharu Osanai, Tetsuya Ando, Junichiro Hirohashi, Tsunehito Wake, Katsufumi Inoue and Hiroki Yamamoto

Materials 2021, 14(15), 4216; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14154216 - 28 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3280 | Correction

Abstract

In this study, an amorphous Ni-13.4Cr-11.6P (mass%) alloy coating with a thickness of 30 μm was deposited on the surface of SUS304 stainless steel as a brazing filler metal to conduct brazing. The differential thermal analysis measurements indicate that the electrodeposited Ni-13.4Cr-11.6P alloy [...] Read more.

In this study, an amorphous Ni-13.4Cr-11.6P (mass%) alloy coating with a thickness of 30 μm was deposited on the surface of SUS304 stainless steel as a brazing filler metal to conduct brazing. The differential thermal analysis measurements indicate that the electrodeposited Ni-13.4Cr-11.6P alloy has a melting point of approximately 892 °C, which is almost consistent with that of the commercial BNi-7 filler metal. The microstructure, shear strength, and fracture mode of the brazed joint were investigated using an electron probe X-ray microanalyzer, a scanning electron microscope, an optical microscope, and a universal testing machine. The results showed that the brazed filler metal is filled between the SUS304 stainless steel plates without any flaws in the brazed seam. The P-containing phases, i.e., the Cr-P rich phase and the (Ni,Fe)₃P phase, were formed in the brazed seam. The shear strength of the brazed joint obtained in this study is 59.0 MPa. The fracture occurs in the brazed filler zone, where the brittle P-containing phases are present. Galvanic current measurement results showed that the brazed Ni-13.4Cr-11.6P alloy coating has a better corrosion resistance than that of the brazed Ni-11P alloy coating, which can be attributed to the formation of a large amount of Ni-Fe solid solution and Cr-P rich phase in the top layer of the brazed Ni-13.4Cr-11.6P alloy coating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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10 pages, 1786 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Amorphous CoB Alloy as Transducer to Detect Acoustic Propagation and Heat Transport at Interface

by Liu Jian and Gyung-Min Choi

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(11), 5155; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11115155 - 1 Jun 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2412

Abstract

Acoustic oscillation provides useful information regarding the interfacial coupling between metal transducer layers and substrate materials. The interfacial coupling can be significantly reduced by a mechanically soft layer between the transducer and substrate. However, preserving a thin, soft layer at the interface during [...] Read more.

Acoustic oscillation provides useful information regarding the interfacial coupling between metal transducer layers and substrate materials. The interfacial coupling can be significantly reduced by a mechanically soft layer between the transducer and substrate. However, preserving a thin, soft layer at the interface during fabrication is often challenging. In this study, we demonstrate that an amorphous CoB alloy on top of a sapphire substrate can substantially amplify acoustic oscillations. By analyzing the attenuation of acoustic oscillations, we show that a thin, soft layer with a thickness of >2 ± 1 Å exists at the interface. The intermediate layer at the interface is further verified by investigating heat transport. By analyzing the slow decrease of the temperature of the transducer layer, we determine a thermal conductance of 35 ± 5 MW m⁻² K⁻¹ at the transducer/substrate interface. This low value supports the existence of a thin, soft layer at the interface. Our results demonstrate that an amorphous metal with B alloying effectively preserves the soft nature at the interface and detects the acoustic propagation and heat transport across it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 8276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Joint Properties of Aluminum Alloy and Galvanized Steel by AC Pulse MIG Braze Welding

by Chan-Seung Ro, Kyoung-Hak Kim, Hee-Seon Bang and Hye-Seul Yoon

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(11), 5105; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11115105 - 31 May 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2788

Abstract

In response to global environment and fuel efficiency regulations aiming to reduce CO₂ emissions, multi-material structures that use lightweight materials are currently being developed to realize the weight reduction of vehicles in automotive manufacturing. The dissimilar welding of aluminum alloy to steel [...] Read more.

In response to global environment and fuel efficiency regulations aiming to reduce CO₂ emissions, multi-material structures that use lightweight materials are currently being developed to realize the weight reduction of vehicles in automotive manufacturing. The dissimilar welding of aluminum alloy to steel has great importance, but it is still challenging due to their widely varying thermo-physical properties and the formation of intermetallic compounds. This study aimed to investigate the effect of process parameters on the wettability, mechanical properties, and microstructure in AC Pulse MIG welded joints of AA6061-T6 and galvanized steel sheets. A parametric study on torch aiming position and welding current with EN ratio variation was performed to optimize the process parameters. The result showed that the amount of metal deposition increased with EN ratio. When the EN ratio was higher, the wire feeding speed increased and the heat input process lowered. Moreover, the wetting length increased, ranging from 6.6 to 8.4 mm, and the wetting angle increased from 31.2 to 67.6°, respectively. As a result of the tensile shear test, the maximum tensile shear load of dissimilar welded joints produced at 70 A with a 20% EN ratio was approximately 8.8 kN. From the result of scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectrometry, FeAl₃ IMC was observed at the joint interface, and the IMC layer thickness decreased with EN ratio at 70 A. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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15 pages, 4480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fe₂O₃ Nanowire Flux Enabling Tungsten Inert Gas Welding of High-Manganese Steel Thick Plates with Improved Mechanical Properties

by Lingyue Zhang and Anming Hu

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(11), 5052; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11115052 - 29 May 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2908

Abstract

Economic welding of thick steel plates is an emerging challenge for various engineering applications. However, tungsten inert gas (TIG) arc welding, as an economic and widely used method, is not regarded as a suitable tool to weld thick steel plates due to the [...] Read more.

Economic welding of thick steel plates is an emerging challenge for various engineering applications. However, tungsten inert gas (TIG) arc welding, as an economic and widely used method, is not regarded as a suitable tool to weld thick steel plates due to the shallow penetration in a single-pass operation. In this technical progress, the joining of austenitic high manganese steel of 8 mm thickness was successfully performed using nanowire flux activated TIG welding with a full penetration and a narrow bead geometry. Fe₂O₃ nanowire was used as flux and compared with microscale Fe₂O₃ flux. Experimental results showed that with nanowire fluxes, the welding yielded the maximum of more than 8 mm thick penetration (full penetration and melt over the plate) with proper operating parameters in a single pass. In sharp contrast, the penetration is only less than 4 mm for a single pass welding without Fe₂O₃ flux with the similar parameters. Arc voltage—time variation during welding process was analyzed and the angular distortion was measured after welding to understand the activating effect of optimized flux mixture. Compared to welding joint without flux and with microscale Fe₂O₃ flux, nanoscale Fe₂O₃ flux has a larger arc voltage and higher energy efficiency, higher joint strength and less angular distortion. The developed joint with nanowire flux qualified the tensile test with tensile strength of 700.7 MPa (82.38% of base material strength) and 34.1% elongation. This work may pave a way for nanotechnology-enabling welding innovation for engineering application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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22 pages, 7535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of θ′ Phase Cutting on Precipitate Hardening of Al–Cu Alloy during Prolonged Plastic Deformation: Molecular Dynamics and Continuum Modeling

by Vasiliy S. Krasnikov, Alexander E. Mayer, Victor V. Pogorelko and Marat R. Gazizov

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(11), 4906; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11114906 - 26 May 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3885

Abstract

We investigate the prolonged plastic deformation of aluminum containing θ′ phase with a multistage approach combining molecular dynamics (MD), continuum modeling (CM) and discrete dislocation dynamics (DDD). The time of performed MD calculations is sufficient for about a hundred dislocation–precipitate interactions. With this [...] Read more.

We investigate the prolonged plastic deformation of aluminum containing θ′ phase with a multistage approach combining molecular dynamics (MD), continuum modeling (CM) and discrete dislocation dynamics (DDD). The time of performed MD calculations is sufficient for about a hundred dislocation–precipitate interactions. With this number of interactions, the inclusion of θ′ is not only cut, but also scattered into individual copper atoms in an aluminum matrix. Damage to the crystal structure of inclusion and activation of the cross-slip of dislocation segments cause a decrease in acting stresses in the MD system. The rate of this effect depends on θ′ diameter and occurs faster for small inclusions. The effect of decreasing the resistance of precipitate is further introduced into the dislocation–precipitate interaction CM by reducing the precipitate effective diameter with an increase in the number of interactions. A model of dislocation–precipitate interaction accounting for the softening of inclusions is further implemented into DDD. Dependences of flow stress in aluminum with θ′ phases on volume fraction and typical diameter of precipitates are obtained. Manifestation of inclusion softening is possible in such an alloy, which leads to the flow stress decrease during deformation. The range of volume fractions and typical diameters of θ′ phases corresponding to the possible decrease in flow stress is distinguished. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 2192 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Convergency and Stability of Explicit and Implicit Schemes in the Simulation of the Heat Equation

by Franyelit Suárez-Carreño and Luis Rosales-Romero

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(10), 4468; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11104468 - 14 May 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7175

Abstract

Some strategies for solving differential equations based on the finite difference method are presented: forward time centered space (FTSC), backward time centered space (BTSC), and the Crank-Nicolson scheme (CN). These are developed and applied to a simple problem involving the one-dimensional (1D) (one [...] Read more.

Some strategies for solving differential equations based on the finite difference method are presented: forward time centered space (FTSC), backward time centered space (BTSC), and the Crank-Nicolson scheme (CN). These are developed and applied to a simple problem involving the one-dimensional (1D) (one spatial and one temporal dimension) heat equation in a thin bar. The numerical implementation in this work can be used as a preamble to introduce a method of solving the heat equation that can be implemented in problems in the area of finances. The results of implementing the software on very fine meshes (unidimensional), and with relatively small-time steps, are shown. Through mesh refinement, it was possible to obtain a better temperature distribution in the thin bar between a range of points. The heat equation was solved numerically by testing both implicit (CN) and explicit (FTSC and BTSC) methods. The examples show that the implemented schemes conform to theoretical predictions and that truncation errors depend on mesh, spacing, and time step. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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17 pages, 9088 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Y₂O₃:Eu³⁺ Nanophosphor-Coated Mica or TiO₂/Mica as Red-Emitting Pearl Pigment: Coating Factors, Luminescent and Gloss Properties

by Se-Min Ban, Mahboob Ullah, Kyeong Youl Jung, Byung-Ki Choi, Kwang-Jung Kang, Myung Chang Kang and Dae-Sung Kim

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(10), 4365; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11104365 - 11 May 2021

Viewed by 2762

Abstract

Red-emitted Y₂O₃:Eu³⁺ nanophosphor coated on a mica flake (Y₂O₃:Eu@MF) or on TiO₂ having a rutile crystalline mica flake (Y₂O₃:Eu@TMF) has been prepared by an electrostatic interaction with the wet-coating [...] Read more.

Red-emitted Y₂O₃:Eu³⁺ nanophosphor coated on a mica flake (Y₂O₃:Eu@MF) or on TiO₂ having a rutile crystalline mica flake (Y₂O₃:Eu@TMF) has been prepared by an electrostatic interaction with the wet-coating method for the purpose of a pigment with luminescent and gloss properties. Aggregated Y₂O₃:Eu³⁺, prepared by the template method, was dispersed into nanosol by a controlled bead-mill wet process. The (+) charged Y₂O₃:Eu³⁺ nanosol was effectively coated on the (−) charged mica flake (MF) or the TiO₂/mica flake (TMF) by an electrostatic interaction between the Y₂O₃:Eu³⁺ nanoparticles and MF or TMF at pH 6–8. The coating factors of Y₂O₃:Eu@MF were also studied and optimized by controlling the pH, stirring temperature, calcination temperature, and coating amount of Y₂O₃:Eu³⁺. The Y₂O₃:Eu³⁺ was partially coated and optimized on the MF or TMF surface with a coating coverage of about 40–50% or 60–70%, respectively. Y₂O₃:Eu@MF and Y₂O₃:Eu@TMF were exhibiting the luminescent property of a red color under a 254 nm wavelength, and had a color purity of over 95% according to CIE chromaticity coordinates. These materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction, FE-SEM, zeta potential, and a fluorescence spectrometer. These materials with luminescent and gloss properties prepared in this work potentially meet their applications for security purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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13 pages, 17169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wall Thinning Assessment for Ferromagnetic Plate with Pulsed Eddy Current Testing Using Analytical Solution Decoupling Method

by Qing Zhang and Xinjun Wu

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(10), 4356; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11104356 - 11 May 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2293

Abstract

The wall-thinning measurement of ferromagnetic plates covered with insulations and claddings is a main challenge in petrochemical and power generation industries. Pulsed eddy current testing (PECT) is considered as a promising method. However, the accuracy is limited due to the interference factors such [...] Read more.

The wall-thinning measurement of ferromagnetic plates covered with insulations and claddings is a main challenge in petrochemical and power generation industries. Pulsed eddy current testing (PECT) is considered as a promising method. However, the accuracy is limited due to the interference factors such as lift-off and cladding. In this study, by decoupling analytic solution, a feature only sensitive to plate thickness is proposed. Based on the electromagnetic waves reflection and transmission theory, cladding-induced interference is firstly decoupled from the analytical model. Moreover, by using the first integral mean value theorem, interferences of insulation and the lift-off are decoupled, too. Hence, the method is proposed by calculating Euclidean distances between the normalized detection signal and normalized reference signal as the feature to assess wall thinning. Its effectiveness under various conditions is examined and results show that the proposed feature is only sensitive to the ferromagnetic plate thickness. Finally, the experiment is carried on to verify this method practicable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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14 pages, 6858 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on a Low Melting Point Al-Si-Cu (Ni) Filler Metal for 6063 Aluminum Alloy Brazing

by Chengyin Peng, Dandan Zhu, Kaifeng Li, Xiang Du, Fei Zhao, Mingpan Wan and Yuanbiao Tan

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(9), 4296; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11094296 - 10 May 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3845

Abstract

A new type of low melting point Al-Si-Cu (Ni) filler metal for brazed 6063 aluminum alloy was designed, and the microstructure and properties of the filler metal were systematically studied. The results show that when the content of Cu in the Al-Si-Cu filler [...] Read more.

A new type of low melting point Al-Si-Cu (Ni) filler metal for brazed 6063 aluminum alloy was designed, and the microstructure and properties of the filler metal were systematically studied. The results show that when the content of Cu in the Al-Si-Cu filler metal increased from 10 wt.% to 20 wt.%, the liquidus temperature of the filler metal decreased from 587.8 °C to 533.4 °C. Its microstructures were mainly composed of the α-Al phase, a primary Si phase, and a θ(Al₂Cu) phase. After a proper amount of Ni was added to the Al-Si-20Cu filler metal, its melting range was narrowed, the spreading wettability was improved, and the microstructure was refined. Its microstructure mainly includes α-Al solid solution, Si particles, and θ(Al₂Cu) and δ(Al₃Ni₂) intermetallic compounds. The results of the shear strength test indicate that the shear strength of the brazed joint with Al-6.5Si-20Cu-2.0Ni filler metal was 150.4 MPa, which was 28.32% higher than that of the brazed joint with Al-6.5Si-20Cu filler metal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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16 pages, 5921 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extension of the Equivalent Material Concept to Compressive Loading: Combination with LEFM Criteria for Fracture Prediction of Keyhole Notched Polymeric Samples

by Ali Reza Torabi, Kazem Hamidi, Behnam Shahbazian, Sergio Cicero and Filippo Berto

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(9), 4138; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11094138 - 30 Apr 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2044

Abstract

This work analyzes, both theoretically and experimentally, the fracture process of square specimens weakened by keyhole notches and subjected to compressive stresses. Two materials are covered: general-purpose polystyrene (GPPS) and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). Firstly, the load-carrying capacity (LCC) of the specimens is determined [...] Read more.

This work analyzes, both theoretically and experimentally, the fracture process of square specimens weakened by keyhole notches and subjected to compressive stresses. Two materials are covered: general-purpose polystyrene (GPPS) and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). Firstly, the load-carrying capacity (LCC) of the specimens is determined experimentally. Then, by using the equivalent material concept (EMC) for compressive conditions coupled with the maximum tangential stress (MTS) and the mean stress (MS) criteria, the LCC of the notched specimens is predicted. The results show that by using the approach proposed in the present investigation, not only can the critical loads in the keyhole notched polymeric specimens be precisely predicted, but also the corresponding compressive critical stress of the two mentioned polymers can be successfully estimated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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17 pages, 5427 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Utilisation of Moon Regolith for Radiation Protection and Thermal Insulation in Permanent Lunar Habitats

by Yulia Akisheva and Yves Gourinat

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(9), 3853; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11093853 - 24 Apr 2021

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 8832

Abstract

In the context of a sustainable long-term human presence on the Moon, solutions for habitat radiation and thermal protection with regolith are investigated. Regolith compression is studied to choose the optimal density-thickness combination in terms of radiation shielding and thermal insulation. The applied [...] Read more.

In the context of a sustainable long-term human presence on the Moon, solutions for habitat radiation and thermal protection with regolith are investigated. Regolith compression is studied to choose the optimal density-thickness combination in terms of radiation shielding and thermal insulation. The applied strategy is to protect the whole habitat from the hazards of galactic cosmic rays and design a dedicated shelter area for protection during solar particle events, which eventually may be a lava tube. Simulations using NASA’s OLTARIS tool show that the effective dose equivalent decreases significantly when a multilayer structure mainly constituted of regolith and other available materials is used instead of pure regolith. The computerised anatomical female model is considered here because future missions will be mixed crews, and, generally, more sex-specific data are required in the field of radiation protection and human spaceflight. This study shows that if reasonably achievable radioprotection conditions are met, mixed crews can stay safely on the lunar surface. Compressed regolith demonstrates a significant efficiency in thermal insulation, requiring little energy management to keep a comfortable temperature inside the habitat. For a more complete picture of the outpost, the radiation protection of lunar rovers and extravehicular mobility units is considered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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12 pages, 1667 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Probabilistic Linear Time-Dependent Stress Beam Analysis and Its Stress-Strength Reliability

by Alejandro Molina, Manuel R. Piña-Monarrez, Jesús M. Barraza-Contreras and Servio T. de la Cruz-Cháidez

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(8), 3459; https://doi.org/10.3390/app11083459 - 12 Apr 2021

Viewed by 2002

Abstract

Based on the principal stress values generated by the bending beam, the material’s strength required at

10^{6}

cycles is determined depending on time. To determine the stress/strength reliability (R(t)), the stress distribution is determined directly from the range of the [...] Read more.

Based on the principal stress values generated by the bending beam, the material’s strength required at

10^{6}

cycles is determined depending on time. To determine the stress/strength reliability (R(t)), the stress distribution is determined directly from the range of the principal stresses values, and the strength distribution is determined based on the reduced tensile strength (

S'_{e}

) and fatigue strength (

S_{e}

) range. Therefore, based on the time-dependent stress and the material’s strength, a step-by-step method to determine the reliability R(t) of the structural element at

10^{6}

cycles is provided. The R(t) index is used to select the best among the feasible beam alternatives of the static/elastic and plastic methodologies. The method’s efficiency is based on the time-dependent stress analysis performed by using the elastic modulus, and corresponding strain as time dependence variables. Because the time-dependent stress is related to the changes of the bending deflection through time, it is determined based on the addressed equivalent stress at

10^{6}

cycles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Metallurgical and Materials Engineering)

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