Plants

32 pages, 2263 KB

Open AccessReview

Fruit and Vegetable By-Products as Postharvest Tissue Fractions: A Raw-Material Framework for Plant-Based Food Development

by Hyo Jun Won and Ae-jin Choi

Plants 2026, 15(16), 2423; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15162423 (registering DOI) - 8 Aug 2026

Abstract

Fruit and vegetable by-products can be interpreted more usefully as postharvest crop-derived tissue fractions than as generic waste streams or sources of recoverable compounds. This integrative review synthesizes evidence on plant tissues, postharvest quality, stabilization, safety, and analytical characterization to develop a tissue-to-raw-material [...] Read more.

Fruit and vegetable by-products can be interpreted more usefully as postharvest crop-derived tissue fractions than as generic waste streams or sources of recoverable compounds. This integrative review synthesizes evidence on plant tissues, postharvest quality, stabilization, safety, and analytical characterization to develop a tissue-to-raw-material framework for plant-based food development. The framework begins with crop source, cultivar or maturity, organ/tissue identity, and postharvest history, and then links these variables to stabilization, safety screening, analytical evidence, intended-use specifications, and route assignment. Brassicaceae crops—including napa cabbage, radish, cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower—serve as representative cases because their leafy, root, stem, core, stalk, and trimming fractions differ in water status, tissue fragility, sulfur-related traits, sensory constraints, and stabilization needs. Application suitability is therefore assessed from tissue identity, postharvest condition, stabilization history, safety status, and intended-use specifications rather than compound richness alone. Within this framework, zero-waste development means assigning a documented tissue fraction to a supported food, fermentation, coating/film, or selected secondary-material route, while using lower-risk assignment, downgrading, or exclusion where traceability, safety, stability, or specification evidence remains insufficient. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Innovation: Quality Improvement and Plant-Based Food Development)

19 pages, 3835 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Omics Analysis of Drought and Growth Responses in Nitraria sibirica: Insights from Habitat-Specific and Developmental Comparisons

by Yaling Chang, Fu Ran, Qingshan Fan, Fang Yang, Xiaoming Bai, Guanghui Lv and Ting Wang

Plants 2026, 15(16), 2422; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15162422 (registering DOI) - 8 Aug 2026

Abstract

Global climate change-driven drought aggravation seriously threatens the survival and distribution of desert shrubs. Nitraria sibirica Pall. has outstanding drought tolerance, yet its growth adaptation strategies and internal regulatory mechanisms under different soil moisture conditions lack systematic research. This study combined physiological determination [...] Read more.

Global climate change-driven drought aggravation seriously threatens the survival and distribution of desert shrubs. Nitraria sibirica Pall. has outstanding drought tolerance, yet its growth adaptation strategies and internal regulatory mechanisms under different soil moisture conditions lack systematic research. This study combined physiological determination with transcriptome and metabolome analyses to investigate its physiological responses and molecular regulation mechanisms at different growth stages and habitats. Nitraria sibirica from riparian habitats exhibited lower leaf organic carbon and higher total nitrogen. Desert-grown N. sibirica possessed far more drought-responsive differentially expressed genes and metabolites than riparian ones. Hormone signal transduction and lipid metabolism dominated regulation in riparian habitats, whereas secondary metabolite biosynthesis and amino acid metabolism—especially flavonoid biosynthesis and tryptophan metabolism—were core in desert habitats. Its drought response displayed distinct stage-specificity, with hormone signal transduction most enriched in drought-responsive genes across growth periods. This study clarifies the stress adaptation mechanisms of desert shrubs and provides theoretical support for germplasm evaluation and vegetation restoration in arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Abiotic Stress Responses in Plants—Second Edition)

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23 pages, 13460 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification of the Ca²⁺-ATPase Gene Family and Functional Analysis of MdACA39 in Resistance to Alternaria alternata in Malus domestica

by Yingjun Hou, Mingzhi Guan, Wenhui Wang, Wenfang Li, Zonghuan Ma, Xin Li, Cunwu Zuo, Juan Mao and Baihong Chen

Plants 2026, 15(16), 2421; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15162421 (registering DOI) - 8 Aug 2026

Abstract

The calcium ion-transporting ATPase (Ca²⁺-ATPase) gene family maintains plant intracellular Ca²⁺ homeostasis and regulates growth, development and stress immunity; however, its functions remain poorly characterized in Malus domestica. Here, we performed a genome-wide identification of apple Ca²⁺-ATPase [...] Read more.

The calcium ion-transporting ATPase (Ca²⁺-ATPase) gene family maintains plant intracellular Ca²⁺ homeostasis and regulates growth, development and stress immunity; however, its functions remain poorly characterized in Malus domestica. Here, we performed a genome-wide identification of apple Ca²⁺-ATPase genes and obtained 45 members, which were classified into MdACA (39) and MdECA (6) subfamilies and unevenly distributed on 14 chromosomes. Phylogenetic analysis of Ca²⁺-ATPase genes from Malus domestica, Arabidopsis thaliana, and Oryza sativa classified these proteins into five subgroups. The ACA and ECA subfamilies were highly conserved across species, whereas Group D was apple-specific. Collinearity and Ka/Ks analyses indicated that segmental duplication and purifying selection dominated the evolution of apple Ca²⁺-ATPase genes. Promoter cis-element prediction uncovered numerous regulatory elements related to phytohormone signaling, growth, development and stress defense. Codon usage bias analysis indicated that AUG (methionine) was the dominant codon. Tissue expression profiles showed differential expression of apple Ca²⁺-ATPase genes in various organs. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) assays demonstrated widespread responses of Ca²⁺-ATPase genes to Alternaria alternata infection, exogenous CaCl₂, salicylic acid (SA) and methyl jasmonate (MeJA), among which MdACA39 was strongly induced under all treatments. Subcellular localization verified that MdACA39 resides on the plasma membrane. Moreover, transient overexpression of MdACA39 significantly enhanced apple resistance to A. alternata, likely due to the activation of SA, MeJA and Ca²⁺ signaling-mediated immune pathways, the induction of disease resistance-related genes, and elevated antioxidant enzyme activity. Collectively, this study systematically characterizes the apple Ca²⁺-ATPase family and identifies MdACA39 as a key regulator of fungal resistance, providing valuable gene resources for dissecting Ca²⁺ signaling-mediated disease resistance in apple. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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21 pages, 11777 KB

Open AccessArticle

Endophytic Bacterial Exopolysaccharide and Ethylene Hyperactivate Flavonoid Synthesis in Leaves of Fagus sylvatica L. with False Heartwood

by Artur Likhanov, Svitlana Bilous, Iryna Smetanska, Maksym Kharkhota, Oleksandr Subin, Volodymyr Gryb, Vira Boroday, Liubov Zelena, Mariia Shevchuk and Andrii Bilous

Plants 2026, 15(16), 2420; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15162420 - 7 Aug 2026

Abstract

The presence of false heartwood in the stems of Fagus sylvatica L. significantly reduces timber quality; to date, its physiological triggers remain understudied. Research on beech stands in the forests of the Bukovinian Pre-Carpathians (Ukraine) was aimed at identifying functional links between leaf [...] Read more.

The presence of false heartwood in the stems of Fagus sylvatica L. significantly reduces timber quality; to date, its physiological triggers remain understudied. Research on beech stands in the forests of the Bukovinian Pre-Carpathians (Ukraine) was aimed at identifying functional links between leaf structure, synthesis of polyphenols, microbial elicitors, and false heartwood formation. Using morphometric analysis, epifluorescence microscopy, and spectrophotometry, trees with false heartwood (FH morphotype) were compared with those without it, the healthy control (HC morphotype). Sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene identified the endophytic strain Bacillus halotolerans (BHFHB). The composition of its exopolysaccharides (EPS) was analyzed by gas chromatography. Trees with FH were identified as a distinct morphotype characterized by leaf blade thickness and increased flavonoid content in leaves. It was experimentally demonstrated that this morphotype is characterized by the capacity for flavonoid hypersynthesis. Treatment of leaves with ethephon or bacterial EPS resulted in a 20–30% increase in flavonoid content within four hours. The proactive response, combined with xeromorphic traits, indicates a state of systemic priming. FH formation in this morphotype is proposed to be considered as an individual adaptive strategy, where ethylene-dependent hypersynthesis of flavonoids provides antioxidant protection, biomechanical resistance, and metabolomic adaptation under extreme conditions of mountain ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Protection: Plant–Microbe Interactions, Risk Assessments, and Management Strategies)

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20 pages, 13119 KB

Open AccessArticle

First Report of Phytopythium vexans Causing Stem and Leaf Necrosis on Rubber Tree (Hevea brasiliensis): Biological Characteristics and Fungicide Sensitivity

by Zhiying Cai, Lili He, Liming Dai, Yuping Shi, Yixian Liu, Haipeng Su, Sipeng Jian and Hongjun Mu

Plants 2026, 15(16), 2419; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15162419 - 7 Aug 2026

Abstract

Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A.Juss.) Müll.Arg., the world’s primary source of natural rubber, faces increasing threats from emerging diseases in tropical cultivation regions. During recent field surveys in Yunnan and Hainan provinces of China, previously uncharacterized brown, water-soaked necrotic lesions were observed on [...] Read more.

Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex A.Juss.) Müll.Arg., the world’s primary source of natural rubber, faces increasing threats from emerging diseases in tropical cultivation regions. During recent field surveys in Yunnan and Hainan provinces of China, previously uncharacterized brown, water-soaked necrotic lesions were observed on tender stems and leaves of rubber trees. This study aimed to identify the causal pathogen, characterize its biological traits, and evaluate candidate fungicides for disease management. The pathogen was isolated via tissue explant methods and identified through morphological observation combined with multigene phylogenetic analyses based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, large subunit (LSU) ribosomal DNA, and cytochrome c oxidase subunits I and II (coxI and coxII) sequences. Pathogenicity was rigorously confirmed by fulfilling Koch’s postulates on rubber tree seedlings. The isolates produced spherical to ovoid, papillate sporangia, and phylogenetic reconstruction strongly supported clustering them with Phytopythium vexans. The pathogen grew optimally at 16–31 °C, with growth ceasing at 35 °C. Fungicide sensitivity assays revealed that metalaxyl exhibited the strongest inhibitory activity against mycelial growth, with half-maximal effective concentration (EC₅₀) values as low as 0.04 μg/mL. To our knowledge, this is the first report of P. vexans causing foliar and stem necrosis on H. brasiliensis. These findings provide a theoretical foundation for accurate disease diagnosis, epidemiological surveillance, and the development of effective chemical control strategies for rubber plantations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Protection and Biotic Interactions)

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20 pages, 4445 KB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient In Planta Induction of Transgenic Hairy Roots in Macadamia Seedlings and Mature Trees Using Visual Reporters

by Yi Mo, Yu-Chong Fei, Xi Tian, Yujie Luo, Kai Lin, Meng Li, Jiajing Xu, Yuqi Pang, Yongwei Wu, Kuipeng Li, Liming Zeng, Sijie Huang and Zeng-Fu Xu

Plants 2026, 15(16), 2418; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15162418 - 7 Aug 2026

Abstract

Macadamia (Macadamia spp.) is an economically important nut crop whose severe recalcitrance to genetic transformation substantially hinders progress in functional genomics and molecular breeding. To overcome this critical technical bottleneck, this study established a highly efficient and broadly applicable in planta hairy [...] Read more.

Macadamia (Macadamia spp.) is an economically important nut crop whose severe recalcitrance to genetic transformation substantially hinders progress in functional genomics and molecular breeding. To overcome this critical technical bottleneck, this study established a highly efficient and broadly applicable in planta hairy root genetic transformation system with integrated visual screening. This system utilizes an Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated transformation method, employing multiple visual reporter gene systems (DsRed2, eGFP, RUBY, and AtPAP2) to achieve antibiotic-independent and non-destructive screening of transgenic roots. Notably, the system innovatively incorporates the air layering (marcotting) technique to extend in planta genetic transformation to branches of mature trees in the field. By circumventing the stringent sterile conditions required for conventional in vitro tissue culture, this approach achieves a largely genotype-independent transformation across open-pollinated seedlings with diverse genetic backgrounds (A4, GR1, HAES900, and O.C.). The transgenic hairy root induction frequencies ranged from 39.25% to 47.38%, although the GR1 genotype exhibited a notable developmental stage-dependent decline in transformation efficiency. Furthermore, transgenic hairy roots were successfully induced on mature tree branches, with a maximum induction rate of 28.2%. Gene expression analyses confirmed the stable, high-level expression of the target transgenes in all the transgenic hairy root lines. This in planta transformation system provides a reliable in vivo experimental platform for the rapid functional validation of candidate genes and the investigation of root biology in Macadamia. Moreover, it establishes a novel strategy for plant regeneration via root-to-shoot organogenesis, offering a promising avenue for the genetic improvement of recalcitrant woody plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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20 pages, 2422 KB

Open AccessArticle

Anti-Biofilm Activity of (+)-Endo-Borneol Against Streptococcus mutans: Experimental Evaluation, Virulence Gene Expression Analysis, and Molecular Docking

by Gayane Atazhanova, Karakoz Badekova, Yana Levaya, Assel Sabiyeva, Tomas Kacergius, Vika Gabe, Irina Kadyrova, Altyn Bakenova, Almagul Makhmutova, Daniyar Sadyrbekov, Assanali Ainabayev and Elina Smagulova

Plants 2026, 15(16), 2417; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15162417 - 7 Aug 2026

Abstract

Streptococcus mutans is the primary etiological agent of dental caries due to its ability to form acidogenic biofilms on tooth surfaces. Natural monoterpenes have attracted considerable interest as potential antibiofilm agents for oral healthcare. The present study investigated the antibiofilm activity and possible [...] Read more.

Streptococcus mutans is the primary etiological agent of dental caries due to its ability to form acidogenic biofilms on tooth surfaces. Natural monoterpenes have attracted considerable interest as potential antibiofilm agents for oral healthcare. The present study investigated the antibiofilm activity and possible mechanism of action of (+)-endo-borneol isolated from the essential oil of Achillea millefolium against S. mutans. The chemical composition of the essential oil was characterized by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), and (+)-endo-borneol was isolated by chromatographic separation. Antibiofilm activity was evaluated using the crystal violet biofilm assay, while antimicrobial activity was determined by minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) assays. The influence of subinhibitory concentrations of (+)-endo-borneol on the expression of the biofilm-associated genes gtfB and yycF was assessed by quantitative real-time PCR. Molecular docking was performed to investigate ligand–protein interactions, using a ligand geometry pre-optimized by density functional theory (DFT, B3LYP/6-31G**). The essential oil inhibited S. mutans biofilm formation by up to 98%, whereas isolated (+)-endo-borneol reduced biofilm biomass by 97–98% at concentrations of 2–10 mg/mL. The MIC and MBC values of (+)-endo-borneol were 2.5 and 5.0 mg/mL, respectively. Gene expression analysis demonstrated that subinhibitory concentrations of (+)-endo-borneol modulated the transcription of gtfB and yycF, indicating activation of bacterial regulatory responses. Molecular docking revealed favorable binding of (+)-endo-borneol to biofilm-related protein targets. These findings demonstrate that (+)-endo-borneol is a promising natural antibiofilm compound with potential application in the development of novel preventive and therapeutic oral healthcare products targeting S. mutans biofilms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural Science and Ornamental Plants)

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25 pages, 2826 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimized Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction Enhances the Recovery of Anti-Collagenase Phytochemicals from Mitragyna speciosa Korth. Leaves

by Thasang Thavanapong, Nara Yaowiwat, Siripat Chaichit, Mathukorn Sainakham, Pimporn Leelapornpisid and Worrapan Poomanee

Plants 2026, 15(16), 2416; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15162416 - 7 Aug 2026

Abstract

Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (Kratom) is a plant native to Southeast Asia, traditionally used for its stimulant and analgesic properties. Beyond mitragynine, the principal alkaloid dominating M. speciosa research, this study explored the cosmeceutical and nutraceutical potential of its phenolic and flavonoid constituents. Kratom [...] Read more.

Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (Kratom) is a plant native to Southeast Asia, traditionally used for its stimulant and analgesic properties. Beyond mitragynine, the principal alkaloid dominating M. speciosa research, this study explored the cosmeceutical and nutraceutical potential of its phenolic and flavonoid constituents. Kratom leaf extract (MLE) was obtained via ultrasound-assisted extraction optimized by Central Composite Design, yielding high polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity. The optimized MLE showed measurable collagenase inhibition (IC₅₀ = 92.63 ± 7.81 µg/mL) while maintaining fibroblast viability (>80%). UHPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS tentatively identified chlorogenic acid, rutin, and kaempferol 3-glucosyl-(1→6)-galactoside (K3G). Chlorogenic acid and rutin were quantified by HPLC at 31.37 ± 2.41 and 18.76 ± 1.66 µg/mg extract, respectively, while K3G remained linked to an unidentified peak. Mitragynine was also quantified at an appreciable level (59.38 ± 0.21 µg/mg extract), indicating that removal of the alkaloid fraction is required before application. Molecular docking identified chlorogenic acid as the strongest predicted collagenase binder (−12.82 kcal/mol), though chlorogenic acid and rutin together could not fully account for the extract’s activity, suggesting possible contributions from K3G and other unidentified compounds. These findings provide preliminary evidence for the cosmeceutical potential of kratom leaf extract, pending control of its alkaloid content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal Plants: Advances in Phytochemistry and Ethnobotany (3rd Edition))

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15 pages, 6615 KB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Characterization of TaNCED1 in Regulating Drought Stress Tolerance in Transgenic Wheat

by Shujuan Zhang, Rongzhi Zhang, Dandan Li, Jie Gao, Jihu Li, Guoqi Song, Wei Li, Yulian Li and Genying Li

Plants 2026, 15(16), 2415; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15162415 - 7 Aug 2026

Abstract

The ABA signaling pathway is essential for plant growth, development, and responses to diverse abiotic stresses. 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenases (NCEDs) are key functional enzymes involved in this pathway. In the present study, we investigated the biological roles and underlying molecular mechanisms of the TaNCED1 [...] Read more.

The ABA signaling pathway is essential for plant growth, development, and responses to diverse abiotic stresses. 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenases (NCEDs) are key functional enzymes involved in this pathway. In the present study, we investigated the biological roles and underlying molecular mechanisms of the TaNCED1 gene in wheat under drought stress treatment, using two materials: TaNCED1-overexpressing transgenic wheat plants and the nced1 knockout mutants. Phenotypic and physiological results demonstrated that TaNCED1 overexpression significantly enhanced wheat drought tolerance, whereas the knockout mutants clearly reduced the drought resistance. Mechanistically, TaNCED1 positively modulates wheat drought tolerance by maintaining higher leaf relative water content (RWC), accumulating more soluble sugars and proline, and reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation and electrolytic leakage. Moreover, the catalase (CAT) activity accumulated to higher levels exclusively under drought stress, and this antioxidant enzyme serves as a core mediator of drought tolerance conferred by TaNCED1 overexpression. Transcriptomic profiling of drought-challenged transgenic and WT plants further confirmed that TaNCED1 initiates a suite of stress-responsive regulatory cascades and robustly upregulates key drought resistance genes in wheat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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18 pages, 3854 KB

Open AccessArticle

ZmTB1^be1 Modulates Ear Branching via Releasing the Repression to ZmWOX3a in Maize

by Zheyu Yan, Yulan Wang, Anqi Sun, Jiuguang Wang, Zhiyun Qi, Shujun Li, Lanyousong Deng, Tingting Liu, Mengya Qian, Haitao Qian, Shunzhe Zhang, Hong Duan, Qianlin Xiao and Zhizhai Liu

Plants 2026, 15(16), 2414; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15162414 - 7 Aug 2026

Abstract

The natural mutation of ZmTB1^WT to ZmTB1^be1 was documented as the fundamental cause of ear branching in maize, while the molecular mechanism remains undiscovered. In the present study, we characterized both ZmTB1^WT and ZmTB1^be1, and found that the [...] Read more.

The natural mutation of ZmTB1^WT to ZmTB1^be1 was documented as the fundamental cause of ear branching in maize, while the molecular mechanism remains undiscovered. In the present study, we characterized both ZmTB1^WT and ZmTB1^be1, and found that the structure of conserved domains, activation features, and subcellular localization of both proteins remained unchanged, whereas the mutation significantly decreased the transactivating power of ZmTB1^WT to the documented downstream target genes. Further DAP-qPCR identified significant enrichment of ZmTB1^be1 within the promoter of ZmWOX3a (pZmWOX3a), and the results of EMSA and Y1H indicated that ZmTB1^be1 could directly bind to pZmWOX3a. D-LUC assays showed that ZmTB1^WT significantly suppressed the activity of pZmWOX3a, while this suppression effect was completely released by the mutation of ZmTB1^be1. Furthermore, ZmTB1^WT exhibited statistically higher expression levels than ZmWOX3a within the tissues of immature ear and axillary buds at V7 under WT background, while ZmWOX3a possessed significantly stronger expression signals than ZmTB1^be1 under be1 background and ZmTB1^CR under ZmTB1^WT-edited backgrounds. The summary results of the present study hypothesize a novel cascade of ZmTB1^be1-ZmWOX3a in regulating ear branching, shedding a new light in understanding the female inflorescence development in maize. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Trends in Reproductive Enhancement of Crop Resilience to Extreme Climate)

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16 pages, 1459 KB

Open AccessArticle

Screening and Evaluation of Quinoa Germplasm for Saline–Alkali Tolerance Based on Germination Vigor Traits

by Qinghan Bao, Xiaowei Wei, Yang Wu, Yongping Zhang, Yue Zhang and Yang Wang

Plants 2026, 15(15), 2413; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15152413 - 6 Aug 2026

Abstract

Soil salinization and alkalization caused by global climate change have become major constraints on crop production worldwide. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), owing to its exceptional adaptability to adverse environmental conditions, is considered a promising crop for saline–alkali agriculture. Successful screening and evaluation [...] Read more.

Soil salinization and alkalization caused by global climate change have become major constraints on crop production worldwide. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), owing to its exceptional adaptability to adverse environmental conditions, is considered a promising crop for saline–alkali agriculture. Successful screening and evaluation of saline–alkali-tolerant germplasm at the germination stage is essential for breeding quinoa varieties with enhanced tolerance to compound saline–alkali stress. In this study, 23 quinoa accessions originating from different regions were evaluated for saline–alkali tolerance by exposing seeds to compound saline–alkali solutions at different concentrations in a Petri dish germination assay. During the germination stage, relative vigor index, germination rate, germination energy, shoot length, root length, and fresh weight were determined, and saline–alkali tolerance was assessed using multivariate statistical analyses. The germination ability and seedling growth potential of quinoa germplasm gradually declined with increasing saline–alkali stress. Based on the comprehensive saline–alkali tolerance index at the germination stage, eight accessions were identified as highly tolerant and four accessions as highly sensitive to saline–alkali stress. Among them, LL1 and Z27 exhibited outstanding tolerance and were identified as elite saline–alkali-tolerant germplasm resources. The results indicated that vigor index and fresh weight at the germination stage can serve as key parameters for evaluating saline–alkali tolerance in quinoa germplasm. Overall, this study provides valuable germplasm resources and a practical basis for breeding new quinoa varieties with enhanced saline–alkali tolerance, as well as for the identification and utilization of stress-resistance-related genes in quinoa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mitigation Strategies and Tolerance of Plants to Abiotic Stresses—3rd Edition)

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24 pages, 5152 KB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological and Physiological Changes and Ethylene-Related Gene Expression During Petal Senescence in Red-Flowered Strawberry ‘140’

by Lixiang Miao, Jiyao Qiu, Yijia Ma, Chaocui Nong, Ziping Fan, Rongping Ren, Ming Jiang, Qingxi Chen and Yuji Huang

Plants 2026, 15(15), 2412; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15152412 - 6 Aug 2026

Abstract

Red-flowered strawberry possesses both ornamental and edible value, but its short single-flower lifespan severely limits its ornamental potential. In this study, petals of the red-flowered strawberry cultivar ‘140’ were collected at five developmental stages (large bud, half-bloom, full-bloom, initial withering, and withered) to [...] Read more.

Red-flowered strawberry possesses both ornamental and edible value, but its short single-flower lifespan severely limits its ornamental potential. In this study, petals of the red-flowered strawberry cultivar ‘140’ were collected at five developmental stages (large bud, half-bloom, full-bloom, initial withering, and withered) to systematically analyze the senescence process from morphological characteristics, physiological, and ethylene-related gene expression perspectives. The results showed that the epidermal cell breakage rate increased continuously during petal senescence, with lower epidermal cells consistently exhibiting higher breakage rates than the upper epidermal cells. Moisture content decreased progressively, while relative electrolyte leakage, malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, and superoxide anion contents increased continuously. Superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase activities, as well as glutathione content, exhibited unimodal responses, peaking at different stages. Both ethylene and abscisic acid contents increased and then decreased, with ethylene showing greater amplitude and faster rate of change. The ethylene biosynthesis gene FaACO1 and signaling genes FaETR1, FaETR2, FaEIN2, FaEIN7, FaERF13, and FaERF118 were significantly upregulated at full-bloom or initial withering stages, with FaERF118 showing the highest and continuously increasing expression. These findings indicate that water loss, membrane lipid peroxidation, and reactive oxygen species accumulation synergistically drive petal senescence, with the ethylene signaling pathway playing a key regulatory role. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural Science and Ornamental Plants)

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22 pages, 6230 KB

Open AccessArticle

Iron Chlorin e6 Improves Soybean Yield by Maintaining Chlorophyll Stability and Promoting Carbohydrate Accumulation Under Saline–Alkali Stress

by Wei Chen, Suyu Chen, Yanli Du, Liang Cao, Chunyuan Ren, Lu Lin, Xin Du, Jinghan Xu, Jiping Xu, Yuxian Zhang and Qiang Zhao

Plants 2026, 15(15), 2411; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15152411 - 6 Aug 2026

Abstract

Saline–alkali stress is a widespread abiotic stress that severely impairs crop growth and yield formation. Iron Chlorin e6 (ICe6), a novel plant growth regulator, is essentially a chlorophyll derivative, and possesses potential application value in regulating plant chlorophyll metabolism and improving plant stress [...] Read more.

Saline–alkali stress is a widespread abiotic stress that severely impairs crop growth and yield formation. Iron Chlorin e6 (ICe6), a novel plant growth regulator, is essentially a chlorophyll derivative, and possesses potential application value in regulating plant chlorophyll metabolism and improving plant stress resistance. In this study, the saline–alkali-sensitive soybean cultivar Henong 95 and saline–alkali-tolerant soybean cultivar Hefeng 50 were used as experimental materials, and foliar spraying with 120 nmol/L ICe6 was conducted at the R1 stage. The results indicated that relative to CK, SA treatment markedly inhibited soybean growth, accompanied by reduced antioxidant capacity, excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and significantly lowered photosynthetic pigment content. Carbohydrate accumulation was substantially suppressed, which ultimately resulted in yield reduction (HN95: −12.31%; HF50: −11.08%). ICe6 treatment mitigated saline–alkali-induced growth inhibition in soybean plants, as reflected by markedly restored antioxidant indices, sharply decreased malondialdehyde (MDA), H₂O₂, and O₂⁻ levels, and notably increased leaf area (HN95: +49.72%; HF50: +19.82%) and chlorophyll content (HN95: +36.06%; HF50: +90.75%). Combined transcriptomic and metabolomic profiling showed that, relative to the SA control, ICe6 treatment led to the identification of 2896 DEGs in HN95 and 3530 DEGs in HF50, with significant enrichment in photosynthesis- and chlorophyll metabolism-related pathways, e.g., GO:0009765 (photosynthesis, light harvesting). Differential metabolites were chiefly enriched in isoflavonoid biosynthesis—a source of antioxidants—and amino acid biosynthesis, which governs chlorophyll precursor synthesis. These findings suggest that ICe6 may enhance chlorophyll content by modulating the expression of genes involved in chlorophyll metabolism, contributing to light capture and chlorophyll biosynthesis, facilitating carbohydrate accumulation and ultimately contributing to increased yield under saline–alkali stress (HN95: +5.74%; HF50: +5.83%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change)

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20 pages, 3081 KB

Open AccessReview

Shaping Plant Adaptation in a Warmer World: Developmental Plasticity Under Moderately Elevated Temperatures

by Junfeng Zhai, Xin Liu, Xiaobin Sun, Ruize Han, Jiewei Zhang and Yan Liang

Plants 2026, 15(15), 2410; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15152410 - 6 Aug 2026

Abstract

As global warming raises ambient temperatures, plant growth and productivity are being profoundly affected. Although the impacts of extreme heat stress have received extensive attention, the developmental consequences of moderately elevated temperatures remain less understood. As sessile organisms, plants rely on developmental plasticity [...] Read more.

As global warming raises ambient temperatures, plant growth and productivity are being profoundly affected. Although the impacts of extreme heat stress have received extensive attention, the developmental consequences of moderately elevated temperatures remain less understood. As sessile organisms, plants rely on developmental plasticity to adjust their growth and development in response to warm environments. Understanding how plants sense temperature and convert this signal into developmental outputs is crucial for determining their adaptive strategies to climate change and for applying this knowledge to breed climate-resilient crops. Here, we review current advances in understanding how moderately elevated temperatures regulate developmental plasticity throughout the plant life cycle, including the perception of moderate warmth, the resulting developmental plasticity during vegetative and reproductive growth, and the coordination and trade-offs between these two phases. We also highlight major unanswered questions in this field and propose strategies for manipulating developmental plasticity to breed climate-resilient crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Response to Abiotic Stress and Climate Change)

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27 pages, 4819 KB

Open AccessReview

African Polyherbal Formulations for Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Efficacy, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Potential

by Nokukhanya Thembane, Siphamandla Hlatshwayo, Sanele Nobleman Mhlungu, Siboniso Percival Sithole, Phikelelani Ngubane, Mlungisi Ngcobo and Nceba Gqaleni

Plants 2026, 15(15), 2409; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15152409 - 6 Aug 2026

Abstract

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) remains a major public health challenge in Africa, where limited healthcare access and the high cost of conventional therapies sustain reliance on African traditional medicine (ATM). This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the efficacy, mechanisms of action, and safety [...] Read more.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) remains a major public health challenge in Africa, where limited healthcare access and the high cost of conventional therapies sustain reliance on African traditional medicine (ATM). This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the efficacy, mechanisms of action, and safety of African polyherbal formulations for T2D management. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines, following a protocol registered with PROSPERO (CRD420251168831). We searched PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Google Scholar for studies published between 1 January 2011 and 31 December 2024. Seventeen studies met the inclusion criteria. Polyherbal formulations consistently improved glycaemic control, insulin sensitivity, antioxidant status, and lipid profiles. Meta-analysis of 10 preclinical studies demonstrated a significant reduction in fasting blood glucose compared with that of diabetic controls (SMD = −5.22, 95% CI: −5.55 to −4.89; p < 0.001; I² = 93.88%). Proposed mechanisms included β-cell protection, stimulation of insulin secretion, inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase, and attenuation of oxidative stress. Safety data were limited and inconsistently reported. Human evidence was limited to one quasi-experimental clinical study and one acute human OGTT study. African polyherbal formulations demonstrate promising antidiabetic potential; however, methodological heterogeneity, limited phytochemical characterisation, inadequate safety assessment, and scarce clinical evidence highlight the need for standardised preclinical studies and well-designed clinical trials to support evidence-based integration into healthcare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal Plants: Advances in Phytochemistry and Ethnobotany (3rd Edition))

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18 pages, 7872 KB

Open AccessArticle

Percent Tolerance to Phosphorus Deficiency (PTPD) as a Potential Metric for Genotypic Screening in Soybean (Glycine max L.)

by Jing Zhao, Debin Yu, Demin Rao, Hongtao Wang, Ziru Hao, Qiang Qiu, Yinkai Zhao, Xiaohui Wang, Tong Cheng, Xiujuan Yan, Minghao Zhang, Botao Cong, Mingshu Li, Fangang Meng and Wei Zhang

Plants 2026, 15(15), 2408; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15152408 - 6 Aug 2026

Abstract

Phosphorus (P) deficiency severely limits soybean (Glycine max L.) productivity. This study proposed a three-stage screening framework to identify reliable traits and P-efficient genotypes. In Experiment I, percent tolerance to phosphorus deficiency (PTPD) was calculated for ten growth parameters across 98 genotypes [...] Read more.

Phosphorus (P) deficiency severely limits soybean (Glycine max L.) productivity. This study proposed a three-stage screening framework to identify reliable traits and P-efficient genotypes. In Experiment I, percent tolerance to phosphorus deficiency (PTPD) was calculated for ten growth parameters across 98 genotypes under P-deficient and control conditions. Principal component analysis and comprehensive evaluation identified six key indicators in Experiment I, which were subsequently refined to five indicators through further analysis: SPAD at V3 and R1, photosynthetic rate at R1, shoot dry weight at R8, and seed number per plant at R8. Experiment II re-evaluated these traits using 12 contrasting genotypes under three P levels, identifying CN 15 as the most P-efficient and SN 22 as the most P-inefficient. Experiment III further revealed that CN 15 maintained superior PSII performance and exhibited a 26.2% increase in grain P-utilization efficiency under 0 µM KH₂PO₄ treatment. This integrated framework offers a preliminary reference for screening P-efficient soybean genotypes under controlled conditions, pending field evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Organ Development and Stress Response—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 1011 KB

Open AccessArticle

Essential Oil Composition and Biological Activities of Hyptis eriocephala, an Aromatic Lamiaceae Species from Southern Ecuador

by Diana Guaya, Ana Cristina Hernández and Vladimir Morocho

Plants 2026, 15(15), 2407; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15152407 - 6 Aug 2026

Abstract

Hyptis eriocephala is an aromatic Lamiaceae species from southern Ecuador whose essential oil has not previously been characterized. To establish an initial phytochemical and biological baseline, aerial parts collected at Villonaco were subjected to three independent steam-distillation runs, yielding 0.13 ± 0.04% ( [...] Read more.

Hyptis eriocephala is an aromatic Lamiaceae species from southern Ecuador whose essential oil has not previously been characterized. To establish an initial phytochemical and biological baseline, aerial parts collected at Villonaco were subjected to three independent steam-distillation runs, yielding 0.13 ± 0.04% (w/w) essential oil. Volatile constituents were tentatively assigned by GC–MS using concordant EI mass-spectral and linear retention-index evidence, whereas relative composition was determined by GC–FID peak-area normalization without an internal standard, calibration curves, or response correction factors. Sixty-five constituents accounted for 96.81% of the total GC–FID peak area. The relative profile was dominated by hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes (67.88%), followed by hydrocarbon monoterpenes (24.36%), with α-copaene (28.20 ± 0.24%), germacrene D (9.29 ± 0.09%), α-pinene (6.98 ± 0.03%), α-cubebene (6.70 ± 0.06%), δ-cadinene (6.03 ± 0.07%), limonene (5.44 ± 0.05%), (E)-caryophyllene (5.31 ± 0.05%), and β-phellandrene (4.96 ± 0.02%) were the principal constituents. The oil showed a narrow antibacterial response, with MIC values of 250 µg/mL against Enterococcus faecium ATCC 27270 and 2000 µg/mL against Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 19433. Radical-scavenging activity was assay-dependent: activity was measurable in the ABTS assay (SC₅₀ = 76.87 ± 1.05 µg/mL; TEAC = 30.06 ± 1.16 µM TE/g EO), whereas 50% DPPH scavenging was not reached at 8000 µg/mL. The oil preferentially inhibited BuChE (IC₅₀ = 125.3 ± 1.03 µg/mL) over AChE (IC₅₀ = 385.9 ± 1.02 µg/mL). These findings establish a preliminary phytochemical and biological baseline for the Villonaco material but do not demonstrate a species-wide chemotype, mechanism of action, or therapeutic potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Essential Oils: Chemistry, Bioactivity and Applications)

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21 pages, 1935 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Association Studies of Agronomic and Yield Traits in Sweet Corn (Zea mays L. var. saccharata)

by Yanchao Du, Jingwen Xu, Huiming Li, Mingxing Zhou, Xu Pang, Jianbing Yan, Ye He, Guowu Lian and Faqiang Feng

Plants 2026, 15(15), 2406; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15152406 - 6 Aug 2026

Abstract

Sweet corn is a globally important dual-purpose crop for both food and fresh vegetables. The plant architecture and ear-related traits directly determine its yield potential and field ecological adaptability. To elucidate the genetic architecture of these traits and identify superior alleles for breeding, [...] Read more.

Sweet corn is a globally important dual-purpose crop for both food and fresh vegetables. The plant architecture and ear-related traits directly determine its yield potential and field ecological adaptability. To elucidate the genetic architecture of these traits and identify superior alleles for breeding, we conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) on 11 agronomic traits using 30,597 high-quality SNP markers in a panel of 101 elite sweet corn inbred lines. Population genetic structure was analyzed using sparse non-negative matrix factorization (sNMF) and discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) algorithms, revealing three main clusters and six subpopulations. The clustering pattern was highly consistent with germplasm origin. Association mapping with the fixed and random Circulating Probability Unification (FarmCPU) model identified 16 significant marker–trait associations (MTAs), distributed across seven target agronomic traits. The phenotypic variance explained (PVE) by individual loci ranged from 8.0% to 16.0%. Among these, five stable MTAs across environments, a novel ERN locus (SNP25518) specific to sweet corn, and most association intervals overlapped with previously reported quantitative trait loci (QTLs). Within the ±0.15 Mb (defined by LD decay) flanking windows around the significant SNP loci, a total of 236 candidate genes were annotated, which are primarily involved in hormone signaling, carbon and nitrogen metabolism, cell division, and plant growth and development. In summary, this study dissected the genetic basis of key agronomic traits in sweet corn and provides a foundation for marker-assisted selection and functional validation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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15 pages, 14683 KB

Open AccessArticle

Controlled Irrigation Mitigates Flooding-Induced Yield Loss in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) at the Jointing Stage by Regulating Growth and Biomass Allocation

by Yanmei Yu, Yujiang Xiong, Yan Meng, Peng Chen and Hang Guo

Plants 2026, 15(15), 2405; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15152405 - 6 Aug 2026

Abstract

Flooding during the rice (Oryza sativa L.) jointing stage threatens yield stability in regions with concentrated rainfall and limited drainage. However, the extent to which the water regime before flooding modifies rice growth and yield formation remains poorly understood. A pot experiment [...] Read more.

Flooding during the rice (Oryza sativa L.) jointing stage threatens yield stability in regions with concentrated rainfall and limited drainage. However, the extent to which the water regime before flooding modifies rice growth and yield formation remains poorly understood. A pot experiment was conducted over two years to compare controlled irrigation (CI) with conventional flooding irrigation (CF) across three flooding depths and two durations imposed at the jointing stage. Flooding increased tiller number, plant height, and total leaf area, but reduced net photosynthetic rate and grain yield. Yield loss increased with flooding depth and duration. Under corresponding flooding treatments, CI moderated vegetative expansion and maintained a higher net photosynthetic rate, greater root dry matter, and a higher root-to-shoot ratio than CF. Relative to the corresponding non-flooded controls, yield loss ranged from 4.11% to 39.33% under CI and from 5.63% to 52.50% under CF. The lower yield loss under CI was associated with greater effective panicle number, higher seed setting rate, and better maintenance of photosynthetic activity and root biomass. These findings indicate that the water regime before flooding can influence biomass allocation and yield formation during the jointing stage flooding. Controlled irrigation combined with timely drainage may help reduce yield risk in rice systems exposed to temporary flooding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Soil and Water Management for Climate-Resilient Crop Production)

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