Plants

14 pages, 3368 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nitrogen Mediates Amino Acid Metabolism Affecting Stachydrine Synthesis in Leonurus japonicus

by Xiao-Hong Song, Rui-Xue Wang, Jian-Cai Xiao, Jun-Ling Hou, Bin-Bin Yan, Shou-Dong Zhu, Chao-Geng Lv, Yi-Heng Wang, Yu-Fei Zhang, Jia-Yin Xu, Lei Zhang, Ying Li, Wen-Quan Wang and Yan Zhang

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2767; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182767 (registering DOI) - 10 Sep 2026

Abstract

Leonurus japonicus is a vital herb known for its blood-activating and menstruation-regulating properties, with stachydrine being a crucial secondary metabolite contributing to these effects. Enhancing the accumulation of active ingredients is a key concern in cultivation. This study utilized a hydroponic experiment with [...] Read more.

Leonurus japonicus is a vital herb known for its blood-activating and menstruation-regulating properties, with stachydrine being a crucial secondary metabolite contributing to these effects. Enhancing the accumulation of active ingredients is a key concern in cultivation. This study utilized a hydroponic experiment with varying inorganic nitrogen (N) concentrations (supplied as Ca(NO₃)₂·4H₂O and KNO₃) as nutrient substrates, demonstrating that exogenous nitrogen input significantly increased biomass and promoted stachyridine synthesis in L. japonicus over an extended incubation period. Analysis of key intermediates in the stachydrine synthesis pathway suggests that exogenous nitrogen enhanced the amino acid synthesis pathway in primary metabolism, promoting glycolysis and accumulating tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle substances, namely, pyruvate and α-ketoglutarate. This, in turn, enhanced the production of stachydrine precursors—glutamic acid and ornithine. Nitrogen’s involvement redirected the amino acid synthesis pathway more towards the alkaloid synthesis pathway. The study confirmed the essential role of nitrogen in promoting the quality formation of L. japonicus and provided initial evidence for the mechanism behind stachydrine formation, offering theoretical and practical insights for improving L. japonicus cultivation technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Plant‒Soil Interactions)

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19 pages, 14256 KB

Open AccessArticle

Establishment of Tissue Culture and Genetic Transformation Systems Using Mature Embryos of Bread Wheat

by Yiyang He, Yingrun Wang, Jia Shi, Songyu Pang, Wenyang Li, Chuanzhi Wang, Lantian Ren, Zhaoshi Xu, Dong Wang and Jiacheng Zheng

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2766; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182766 (registering DOI) - 10 Sep 2026

Abstract

Genetic transformation is a core technology for wheat molecular breeding. Transformation efficiency and genotype compatibility determine the pace of targeted genetic improvement. Mature embryos are readily accessible but are associated with low transformation efficiency and strong genotype dependence. Using mature wheat embryos as [...] Read more.

Genetic transformation is a core technology for wheat molecular breeding. Transformation efficiency and genotype compatibility determine the pace of targeted genetic improvement. Mature embryos are readily accessible but are associated with low transformation efficiency and strong genotype dependence. Using mature wheat embryos as explants, we screened eight wheat varieties representing three ecological types to develop genotype-adapted tissue culture systems. Treatments A5 (4 mg/L 2,4-D + 2 mg/L Dicamba), A7 (4 mg/L 2,4-D + 6 mg/L Dicamba), and A8 (4 mg/L 2,4-D + 8 mg/L Dicamba) were optimal for callus induction in winter, semi-winter, and spring wheat, respectively. WF3 (a 1/2 MS-based medium) was broadly applicable to callus differentiation, whereas IBA produced the highest rooting efficiency in regenerated plantlets. The optimal transformation conditions comprised ultrasound treatment (2.5 min) followed by vacuum infiltration (5 min), supplementation of the infection solution with PEG₆₀₀₀ (250 mg/L) and Tween20 (0.01%), and an OD₆₀₀ of 0.6–0.8. Transformation efficiencies using mature embryos of the semi-winter wheat varieties YX288 and ZM578 were 2.5% and 1.8%, respectively. Using this transformation platform, the dwarfing genes Rht12 in ZM578 and Rht8 in YX288 were targeted by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated editing. Multiple single-base substitutions at the target sites were detected in ZM578 rht12 mutants, which exhibited significantly reduced height, increased tiller number, and a compact plant architecture. However, no successfully edited rht8 lines were obtained in YX288. These findings indicate that this study established a reliable mature-embryo transformation system for wheat and successfully validated gene editing in the semi-winter variety ZM578. The system provides a technical platform for the functional analysis of key genes and molecular breeding in bread wheat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Development and Morphogenesis)

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28 pages, 19620 KB

Open AccessArticle

Urban Weeds: Supporters of Pollinator Biodiversity in Urban Landscapes

by Stefano Benvenuti

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2765; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182765 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Urbanization is widely recognized as a major driver of biodiversity loss; however, cities can also provide important refuges for pollinators when diverse and continuous floral resources are available. This study assessed the diversity of spontaneous insect-pollinated flora and its associated pollinator communities across [...] Read more.

Urbanization is widely recognized as a major driver of biodiversity loss; however, cities can also provide important refuges for pollinators when diverse and continuous floral resources are available. This study assessed the diversity of spontaneous insect-pollinated flora and its associated pollinator communities across five major urban habitat types (grasslands, road verges, artificial surfaces, wooded areas, and wetlands) in the Mediterranean cities of Pisa, Livorno, and Lucca (central Italy). During a three-year field survey, spontaneous flowering plant species were systematically recorded, and pollinator visitation rates were quantified using standardized sampling protocols. Approximately 150 spontaneous insect-pollinated plant species were identified, providing a continuous supply of nectar and pollen throughout the flowering season. Pollinator assemblages included honey bees (Apis mellifera), solitary bees, bumblebees, Diptera, and Lepidoptera, with bees representing the dominant group across all habitats. Pollinator visitation rates differed significantly among habitat types, reaching their highest values in grasslands, road verges, and wetlands, whereas wooded habitats and artificial surfaces supported significantly lower pollinator activity. Numerous plant species belonging to diverse botanical families attracted a broad range of pollinator taxa, revealing complex plant–pollinator interactions and demonstrating the ecological value of spontaneous urban vegetation for sustaining pollinator diversity. In summary, the present study shows that spontaneous flora constitutes a fundamental component of urban green infrastructure, supporting pollination services and enhancing ecological connectivity within cities. Biodiversity-friendly management strategies that conserve and promote spontaneous flowering vegetation should therefore be considered a key element of sustainable urban planning and the ecological resilience of Mediterranean urban landscapes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interaction Between Flowers and Pollinators)

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20 pages, 6407 KB

Open AccessArticle

Auxin and Jasmonic Acid Signalling Crosstalk Mediates Plant Growth Regulator-Stimulated Epigallocatechin Gallate Accumulation in Tea Plants (Camellia sinensis )

by Yunfei Hu, Lijia Liu, Xinyu Zeng, Xiaofeng Lu, Yanming Tuo, Yufang Wang, Zhirong Zhu, Qiufang Zhu, Yutao Shi, Liangyu Wu, Yue Zhang and Jinke Lin

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2764; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182764 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) imparts distinctive health benefits and flavor to tea, and its accumulation is modulated by plant growth regulators (PGRs). However, the regulatory mechanisms of Paclobutrazol (PAC) and Lovastatin (LS) underlying EGCG biosynthesis remain uncharacterized. We integrated quantitative analysis, transcriptomics, and metabolomics [...] Read more.

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) imparts distinctive health benefits and flavor to tea, and its accumulation is modulated by plant growth regulators (PGRs). However, the regulatory mechanisms of Paclobutrazol (PAC) and Lovastatin (LS) underlying EGCG biosynthesis remain uncharacterized. We integrated quantitative analysis, transcriptomics, and metabolomics to investigate the regulatory effects of exogenous PAC and LS on EGCG accumulation in tea plants and systematically elucidate the underlying molecular mechanism governing EGCG biosynthesis. The results demonstrated that exogenous PAC and LS treatments significantly elevated the accumulation of EGCG, as well as endogenous auxin and jasmonic acid (JA) contents. The variation trend of these key metabolites was highly consistent with the accumulation patterns of upstream flavonoid components, including eriodictyol, delphinidin, and epigallocatechin. Transcriptomic profiling further verified the critical involvement of auxin and JA signal transduction pathways in PGR-induced EGCG differential accumulation, and we screened a total of 14 auxin-related and 8 JA-related core signal regulatory factors. Furthermore, integrated bioinformatic analyses and antisense oligonucleotide (AsODN) functional validation experiments revealed that the core hormone signaling genes CsARF2 and CsMYC2 regulate the expression of CsSCPL16 through the transcription factor CsMYB80, and ultimately promote the conversion of epigallocatechin to EGCG and promote the accumulation of EGCG in tea plants. Collectively, the PGRs boost EGCG biosynthesis by mediating endogenous auxin and JA signal transduction. These results support the development of targeted agronomic practices to improve tea quality and lay a theoretical basis for expanding the industrial exploitation of tea bioactive constituents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Regulation of Secondary Metabolism and Quality Formation in Tea Plants)

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28 pages, 4070 KB

Open AccessArticle

Chronic Administration of Carvone-Rich Mentha spicata L. Essential Oil Attenuates Cognitive Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress in Zebrafish

by Ion Brinza, Razvan Stefan Boiangiu, Eyup Bagci, Elena Todirascu-Ciornea, Lucian Hritcu and Gabriela Dumitru

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2763; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182763 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Cognitive impairment and anxiety-like behavior associated with cholinergic dysfunction and oxidative stress remain important experimental targets for neuropharmacological screening. Mentha spicata essential oil (MEO, 150 or 300 µL/L) was administered daily by immersion from experimental day 1 through day 22; the first behavioral [...] Read more.

Cognitive impairment and anxiety-like behavior associated with cholinergic dysfunction and oxidative stress remain important experimental targets for neuropharmacological screening. Mentha spicata essential oil (MEO, 150 or 300 µL/L) was administered daily by immersion from experimental day 1 through day 22; the first behavioral assessment occurred after 7 days of pre-exposure. Scopolamine hydrobromide trihydrate (SCO, 100 µM) was administered for 30 min before each behavioral assessment and again before euthanasia, whereas galantamine (GAL, 1 mg/L) was administered 30 min before each SCO challenge. Behavior was evaluated using the novel tank diving test (NTT), novel approach test (NAT), Y-maze, and novel object recognition test (NOR). Brain acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, antioxidant defenses, and oxidative damage were assessed. GC-MS identified a carvone-rich profile dominated by carvone (67.8%), limonene (10.6%), and 1,8-cineole (4.2%). MEO attenuated several SCO-associated behavioral and biochemical changes. The 150 µL/L concentration showed the most consistent memory-related improvement, whereas 300 µL/L also reduced selected oxidative markers but was associated with reduced exploratory activity in some tasks. Treatment-adjusted behavior–biomarker analyses were considered exploratory; only the inverse association between malondialdehyde (MDA) and the NTT top/bottom ratio remained significant after false-discovery-rate correction. In silico descriptors were treated as hypothesis-generating and do not demonstrate zebrafish brain exposure. These findings support further investigation of carvone-rich MEO within a rescue/protection framework, with confirmation in independently replicated exposure tanks and inclusion of MEO-only controls. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemical Variability and Bioactive Potential of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants)

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20 pages, 10574 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differentiation of Acclimation Responses and Seedling Source Effects in Deciduous and Evergreen Conifer Seedlings Under Cross-Altitude Transplantation

by Jiangkai Xie, Zihan Zhang, Yilin Yang, Jinping Guo, Xinjun Chen and Tairui Liu

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2762; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182762 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Understanding the acclimation responses of conifer species with different functional types in response to altitudinal gradient changes is of significance for deepening our knowledge of how plants cope with global climate change. This study focused on seedlings of larch (Larix principis-rupprechtii) [...] Read more.

Understanding the acclimation responses of conifer species with different functional types in response to altitudinal gradient changes is of significance for deepening our knowledge of how plants cope with global climate change. This study focused on seedlings of larch (Larix principis-rupprechtii) and spruce (Picea meyeri) within the Pangquangou Nature Reserve in North-central China. By setting two seedling source altitudes (1600 m, 2400 m) and four transplant altitudes (1600 m, 1900 m, 2100 m, 2400 m), we compared the response characteristics of 20 functional traits, including light response, instantaneous photosynthesis, leaf morphology and nutrient storage. The results showed that: (1) Tree functional type was the core factor determining the altitudinal response pattern of seedlings. Larch exhibited higher sensitivity to altitude change, and its photosynthetic (Amax, AQE, LSP, E) and morphological strategy traits (PA, SL, SW, SLA) changed significantly with altitude. (2) The regulation of phenotypic plasticity by seedling source altitude showed a significant functional-type dependence. The larch was significantly regulated by seedling source altitude, with low-altitude seedling sources displaying higher plasticity in traits such as H:D ratio, Tr and NSC. The spruce showed smaller differences between seedling sources, yet exhibited stronger environmental dynamic plasticity than the larch in carbon storage and utilization strategies (Sugars, NSC). (3) The two tree species coped with altitudinal gradient changes through differentiated trait variation pathways. Larch was primarily driven by carbon metabolism and protein synthesis (C, Protein), which was manifested in adjustments of photosynthetic capacity (Pn) and morphology (leaves and branches), thereby achieving rapid adaptation. In spruce, functional traits such as Pn, SLA and NSC were highly coupled; regardless of seedling source, photosynthetic and leaf morphological traits served as the core drivers, and coordinated changes in multiple traits were relied upon to maintain physiological homeostasis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Physiology and Metabolism)

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30 pages, 577 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) Genotypes for Agronomic Performance and Seed Quality Under Subtropical Australian Conditions

by Parbat Raj Thani, Andrew McDonald, Apurbo Kumar Chaki, Charissa Rixon, Mani Naiker and Tieneke Trotter

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2761; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182761 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is an important oilseed crop valued for its oil, favourable fatty acid profile, and health-promoting phytoconstituents. However, information on the agronomic performance and seed-quality characteristics of sesame genotypes under Australian growing conditions remains limited. This study evaluated sesame [...] Read more.

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is an important oilseed crop valued for its oil, favourable fatty acid profile, and health-promoting phytoconstituents. However, information on the agronomic performance and seed-quality characteristics of sesame genotypes under Australian growing conditions remains limited. This study evaluated sesame genotypes under Australian conditions using complementary field evaluations at Kingaroy and Emerald, Queensland. At Kingaroy three genotypes (BLACK 2, WHITE 5, and WHITE 3) were evaluated across two growing seasons (2023/2024 and 2024/2025) to provide exploratory observations on oil yield and seed-quality characteristics. Because these genotypes were grown as single field strips and harvested seed was bulked within genotype, the Kingaroy data were treated as descriptive observations rather than statistically replicated genotype or seasonal effects. At Emerald, five genotypes (WHITE 6, BLACK 5, BLACK 2, WHITE 5, and WHITE 3) were evaluated using a randomised complete block design with four biological replicates, allowing statistical assessment of genotype effects on agronomic and seed-quality traits. Genotype significantly influenced crop establishment, first-pod height, screw-pressed oil yield, phytochemical composition, and fatty acid profile, whereas most other growth and yield traits did not differ significantly among genotypes. In the replicated Emerald experiment, final plant density ranged from 17.5 to 43.8 plants/m², screw-pressed oil yield from 35.7 to 39.7%, total phenolic content (TPC), FRAP, and CUPRAC from 64.8 to 111.6 mg GAE/100 g DW, 87.3 to 124.8 mg TE/100 g DW, and 587.1 to 806.3 mg TE/100 g DW, respectively, and the sesamin and sesamolin from 107.9 to 281.5 mg/100 g DW and 96.6 to 138.9 mg/100 g DW, respectively. WHITE 3 generally showed high values for several phytochemical characteristics, including TPC, antioxidant capacity, and sesamin concentration. The Kingaroy evaluation showed numerical variation in oil yield and seed-quality characteristics across genotype–season combinations, providing complementary exploratory information but not statistical evidence of genotype or seasonal effects. Overall, the replicated Emerald experiment demonstrated substantial genotypic variation in several agronomic and seed-quality characteristics, highlighting the potential for genotype selection to improve sesame production and seed quality under Australian conditions. Further replicated multi-season and multi-location studies are required to assess the stability of these traits across Australian production environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Characterizations and Biological Activities of Plant Products and By-Products and Their Applications, 2nd Edition)

19 pages, 3252 KB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship Between Understory Plant Diversity and Soil Physicochemical Properties in Four Vegetation Restoration Forest Types in the Latosol Gully Erosion Area on Hainan Island

by Yanping Huang, Yihan Zhao, Ruowen Mao, Liangying Wu, Yuxian Shen, Yijun An, Jinhui Chen and Zhihua Tu

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2760; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182760 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Studying the relationships between understory plant diversity and soil physicochemical properties aids in understanding the sustainable development of plantation forests. Vegetation restoration in latosol gully erosion areas plays a key role in preventing soil erosion. Variations in understory plant diversity and soil physicochemical [...] Read more.

Studying the relationships between understory plant diversity and soil physicochemical properties aids in understanding the sustainable development of plantation forests. Vegetation restoration in latosol gully erosion areas plays a key role in preventing soil erosion. Variations in understory plant diversity and soil physicochemical properties in areas that have undergone vegetation restoration subsequent to gully erosion are not well understood. In this study, we investigated the understory species composition, importance values, plant diversity, and soil physicochemical properties and explored their correlations following vegetation restoration using four forest types (Acacia mangium forest, Eucalyptus robusta forest, A. mangium–E. robusta mixed forest, and A. mangium–E. robusta–Schizostachyum pseudolima mixed forest) in the Mahuangling Watershed, Hainan Province. A total of 49 plant species belonging to 47 genera and 20 families were recorded. The E. robusta forest (31 species) and A. mangium–E. robusta mixed forest (27 species) had higher species richness and more complex community structures. The dominant shrub species were Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Breynia fruticosa, Aporosa dioica, and Dodonaea viscosa, while the dominant herbaceous species were Ageratum conyzoides, Chromolaena odorata, Spermacoce alata, and Erigeron sumatrensis. In all four vegetation restoration forest types, the richness index in the herbaceous layer was higher than in the shrub layer, while the diversity index showed no significant difference between the shrub and herbaceous layers (p > 0.05). The soil bulk density ranged from 1.57 g·cm⁻³ to 1.63 g·cm⁻³, with the A. mangium forest having better soil total porosity (38.77%) and water-holding capacity (190.37 t·hm⁻²) than the other forests. NH₄⁺-N and NO₃⁻-N were lower in the E. robusta forest, while the A. mangium forest had significantly higher organic matter content (13.71 g·kg⁻¹). Correlation and redundancy analyses showed that soil water content, pH, and soil organic matter were key factors affecting herbaceous-layer and shrub-layer plant diversity. On the whole, we suggest that the planting of pure and mixed forests of A. mangium should be considered in future ecological restoration projects in the gully erosion area of Mahuangling in order to maintain the stability of understory plant diversity and improve latosol soil fertility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Tree Diversity: Conservation and Utilization)

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23 pages, 3963 KB

Open AccessArticle

NpWRKY38 Negatively Regulates Drought Tolerance by Impairing ABA/SA Signaling as Well as Photosynthesis in Narenga porphyrocoma

by Shuangcai Li, Haibi Li, Kai Zhu, Rongrong Wang, Yanhang Tang, Hui Zhou, Jinju Wei, Yiyun Gui and Xihui Liu

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2759; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182759 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Narenga porphyrocoma, a wild relative of sugarcane with high drought tolerance, is a valuable germplasm resource for mining drought-tolerance genes. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) identified NpWRKY38, a WRKY transcription factor that was significantly down-regulated under drought stress, a response [...] Read more.

Narenga porphyrocoma, a wild relative of sugarcane with high drought tolerance, is a valuable germplasm resource for mining drought-tolerance genes. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) identified NpWRKY38, a WRKY transcription factor that was significantly down-regulated under drought stress, a response that was further recapitulated by exogenous abscisic acid (ABA) treatment and consistent with the presence of ABA-responsive elements in its promoter. NpWRKY38 overexpression in rice resulted in a significant increase in endogenous ABA content, yet led to insufficient stomatal closure, an attenuated response to exogenous ABA, and a significant reduction in drought tolerance. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that stress-related signaling pathways (e.g., MAPK signaling and plant hormone signal transduction) were activated in the OE lines, whereas photosynthesis, carbon fixation, and chlorophyll biosynthesis pathways were globally suppressed. Specifically, the ABA biosynthetic gene NCED was up-regulated, whereas the positive signaling regulator ABI5 was down-regulated and the negative regulator PP2C was up-regulated, thereby impairing ABA signal transduction. In addition, genes involved in salicylic acid (SA) biosynthesis and signaling (PAL, C4H, NPR4, WRKY45) were broadly down-regulated concurrently with reduced antioxidant enzyme activities. Furthermore, NpWRKY38 overexpression exacerbated drought-induced chloroplast damage, as evidenced by a greater reduction in SPAD values and severe chloroplast ultrastructural abnormalities, including swelling, disorganized thylakoid lamellae, and disrupted grana. These three pathways, namely impaired ABA/SA signaling, suppressed photosynthesis, and chloroplast damage, collectively exacerbated the drought-sensitive phenotype of the OE lines. This study demonstrates that NpWRKY38 acts as a multi-pathway negative regulatory mechanism by interfering with ABA signal transduction, suppressing the SA pathway, down-regulating photosynthetic genes, and compromising chloroplast integrity, providing a potential target for drought tolerance breeding in sugarcane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancement in Gene Expression Regulation in Plants: Coordinating Growth, Development, and Stress Resilience)

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13 pages, 25014 KB

Open AccessArticle

Generation and Characterization of a Sexual Tetraploid Genotype of Seashore Paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum) for Novel Breeding Strategies

by Patricia Elda Novo, Ana María Gonzalez, Matías Oscar Espindola, Norma Estefanía Gómez, Florencia Galdeano and Carlos Alberto Acuña

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2758; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182758 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Breeding Paspalum vaginatum has been limited to the diploid germplasm; however there is a rich diversity in closely related species that may be utilized. The species is diploid and outcrossing due to self-incompatibility. This research aimed to generate a chromosome-doubled tetraploid and evaluate [...] Read more.

Breeding Paspalum vaginatum has been limited to the diploid germplasm; however there is a rich diversity in closely related species that may be utilized. The species is diploid and outcrossing due to self-incompatibility. This research aimed to generate a chromosome-doubled tetraploid and evaluate the effects of chromosome doubling on phenotype and reproductive mode. Both seeds and seedlings from a diploid population were treated with 0.2% colchicine for either 24 or 48 h. Morphological, anatomical, and reproductive traits were evaluated in both cytotypes. Megasporogenesis and megagametogenesis were assessed using complementary histological and optical approaches, and seed set was evaluated under self- and open-pollination. A tetraploid genotype was successfully generated from seedlings treated with colchicine for 24 h with an efficiency of 0.2%. The size of tillers, leaves, inflorescences, stomata, and pollen grains increased in the tetraploid, which also exhibited darker green coloration and greater vigor. Embryo sac development was similar in both cytotypes, indicating that the induced tetraploid remained sexual. No seed set was observed under self-pollination, whereas limited seed set under open-pollination confirmed that the tetraploid is an outcrosser. This new tetraploid provides a valuable bridge parent for introgressing genetic variation from cross-compatible polyploid Paspalum species through interspecific hybridization and the manipulation of apomixis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evolution and Development of Grasses: From Genes to Morphology)

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20 pages, 17907 KB

Open AccessArticle

BnVTE2-Mediated Vitamin E Modulation Is Associated with Antioxidant Capacity, Fatty Acid Stability, and Seed Longevity in Brassica napus

by Qiao Ruan, Xiaoli Tan, Wajahat Hussain, Yunxia Zeng and Yonghong Zhou

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2757; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182757 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Vitamin E (tocopherols) is an important lipid-soluble antioxidant that contributes to plant redox homeostasis and seed longevity. To investigate relationships among BnVTE2-dependent tocopherol accumulation, antioxidant capacity, fatty acid stability, and seed storability in rapeseed, we generated Brassica napus lines overexpressing BnVTE2 (OE) [...] Read more.

Vitamin E (tocopherols) is an important lipid-soluble antioxidant that contributes to plant redox homeostasis and seed longevity. To investigate relationships among BnVTE2-dependent tocopherol accumulation, antioxidant capacity, fatty acid stability, and seed storability in rapeseed, we generated Brassica napus lines overexpressing BnVTE2 (OE) and lines with RNA interference-mediated suppression of BnVTE2 (RNAi). BnVTE2 encodes homogentisate phytyltransferase, a key enzyme catalyzing the committed step in tocopherol biosynthesis. Modulation of BnVTE2 expression resulted in corresponding changes in total tocopherol content. OE lines exhibited higher superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT) activities, lower H₂O₂ and malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation, and improved seed performance after long-term storage, whereas RNAi lines showed the opposite trends. Transcriptome and network analyses identified lipid-related transcriptional changes and glycerolipid-associated candidate hubs; enrichments in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and hormone signaling were treated as broader secondary responses rather than direct components of tocopherol metabolism. After 42 months of storage, seeds with higher tocopherol levels retained greater germination capacity and showed reduced lipid peroxidation relative to tocopherol-deficient lines. Together, these findings support an association among BnVTE2-mediated tocopherol accumulation, antioxidant defense, fatty acid stability, and seed longevity in B. napus. Direct validation of glycerolipid remodeling and hub-gene function will be required in future studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Breeding and Molecular Regulation of Secondary Metabolites in Oilseed Crops)

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43 pages, 1656 KB

Open AccessReview

Chemical Ontogeny in Plants: Developmental Dynamics of Specialized Metabolism and Implications for Ecology, Quality Control, and Bioprospecting

by Dannily Augusto Rebouças, Lorraynne Oliveira-Souza, Tamara do Nascimento da Silva, Rodrigo Guimarães de Deus, Orlando Maia Barboza, Clara Cabral Noronha, Philippe Barreto de Almeida, Gustavo Borges Andrade, Davyson de Lima Moreira and Ygor Jessé Ramos

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2756; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182756 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Plant specialized metabolism changes throughout development, but developmental context remains inconsistently incorporated into phytochemical interpretation. This integrative narrative review synthesizes evidence on chemical ontogeny in plants, defined here as the qualitative and quantitative reorganization of specialized metabolism along plant and organ development. We [...] Read more.

Plant specialized metabolism changes throughout development, but developmental context remains inconsistently incorporated into phytochemical interpretation. This integrative narrative review synthesizes evidence on chemical ontogeny in plants, defined here as the qualitative and quantitative reorganization of specialized metabolism along plant and organ development. We distinguish ontogenetic variation from phenology, seasonality, organ maturation, developmental plasticity, and environmentally induced chemical plasticity, and examine the genetic, hormonal, anatomical, ecological, and analytical processes that generate stage-dependent chemical profiles. Across seeds, seedlings, vegetative organs, reproductive structures, fruits, and senescent tissues, the evidence shows recurrent changes in metabolite abundance, composition, spatial allocation, and bioactivity. These trajectories can alter ecological interactions, marker stability, harvest recommendations, and the reproducibility of botanical raw materials. Analytical strategies should therefore be selected according to the biological question and available resources, ranging from validated targeted or single-omics designs to spatial, single-cell, and multi-omics integration when mechanistically justified. Chemical ontogeny is proposed not as evidence that developmental metabolism is newly discovered, but as an operational framework for stage-aware sampling, reporting, interpretation, quality control, and bioprospecting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Phytochemistry)

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17 pages, 4568 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Silicon Application Strategies for Sweet Basil Growth and Postharvest Chilling Injury Alleviation

by Vivian Ly and Youbin Zheng

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2755; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182755 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

The cold sensitivity of sweet basil often results in unmarketable chilling injury (CI) symptoms and a shorter shelf life under the low temperatures typically used to maintain most fresh produce during transportation and storage. Silicon (Si) treatments have been observed to alleviate these [...] Read more.

The cold sensitivity of sweet basil often results in unmarketable chilling injury (CI) symptoms and a shorter shelf life under the low temperatures typically used to maintain most fresh produce during transportation and storage. Silicon (Si) treatments have been observed to alleviate these symptoms and provide other benefits during cultivation. This study tested different Si application strategies on basil plants to determine their efficacy at reducing CI symptoms and improving growth, and whether efficacy is influenced by dose–response or Si content in leaf tissues. Across four trials, preharvest treatment solutions containing potassium silicate or monosilicic acid were applied to potted basil at Si rates of 0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 mg/L through either regular rootzone fertigation or weekly foliar spray. There were no significant improvements in growth found at harvest. Although the median shelf life during cold storage at 4 °C ranged between 17 and 24 days for all groups, exceeding known estimates for untreated basil, there were no significant improvements compared to the controls. Drought stress could have been a contributing factor that hardened controls against chilling even without Si applications. Further investigations are necessary to determine the sole effects of Si applications on basil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicon and Its Physiological Role in Plant Growth and Development)

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2 pages, 161 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Phytochemical Analysis and Metabolic Profiling in Plants

by Yulian Voynikov

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2754; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182754 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

This Special Issue (SI) was launched to collect work applying UHPLC–HRMS and related techniques to plant secondary metabolites, together with clustering and multivariate methods, which are used to provide insights into relating MS data to structures [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytochemical Analysis and Metabolic Profiling in Plants)

11 pages, 1515 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Gene Matrix for Precision Breeding of Rice Grain Quality

by Zhixing Jin, Haipeng Tang, Xiaoyan Li, Shuxiang He, Yuhao Fu, Jun Zhu and Tao Luo

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2753; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182753 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Rice grain quality is governed by a network of interacting loci, which makes the simultaneous improvement of several grading indices difficult. We phenotyped 240 indica accessions for 12 quality traits and graded six core indices—head rice rate, chalkiness degree, transparency, amylose content, gel [...] Read more.

Rice grain quality is governed by a network of interacting loci, which makes the simultaneous improvement of several grading indices difficult. We phenotyped 240 indica accessions for 12 quality traits and graded six core indices—head rice rate, chalkiness degree, transparency, amylose content, gel consistency, and alkali spreading value—against the Chinese national standard NY/T 593-2021. Pairwise correlations resolved the traits into grain-shape, chalkiness, and starch clusters and quantified the trade-offs between them. KASP markers for GS3, GW5, Chalk5, Wx, and ALK were then used to test each locus against the six indices. Head rice rate responded to both chalkiness and grain shape; chalkiness degree was governed mainly by Chalk5 and modified by the grain-shape loci; transparency depended on Wx/ALK and on chalkiness; amylose content and alkali spreading value tracked Wx and ALK, respectively; and gel consistency reflected the Wx–ALK combination. The haplotype GW5/GS3/Chalk5^L/Wx^b/ALK^b reached grade 2 or better on all six indices but occurred in only two of the 240 accessions. Near-isogenic lines carrying GW5/GS3/Chalk5^L in the Xibaizhan background produced longer, narrower grains and reduced the chalkiness degree from 17.1% to 5.3%, confirming the contribution of the appearance module within the matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Dissection, Physicochemical Characterization, and Molecular Mechanisms of Crop Quality Traits)

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19 pages, 1412 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Maintained Early Silvicultural Treatments over Two Rotations and Climate Change on Early Growth of Radiata Pine Plantations

by Daniel Bozo, Rafael Rubilar, Matías Pincheira, Timothy J. Albaugh, Rachel Cook, Otávio C. Campoe and Óscar Jara

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2752; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182752 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Sustaining forest plantation productivity across successive rotations is increasingly challenging under changing environmental conditions. This study evaluated whether repeated establishment silviculture can maintain early second-rotation growth performance of Pinus radiata D. Don in central-south volcanic sandy soils in Chile. An experiment encompassing soil [...] Read more.

Sustaining forest plantation productivity across successive rotations is increasingly challenging under changing environmental conditions. This study evaluated whether repeated establishment silviculture can maintain early second-rotation growth performance of Pinus radiata D. Don in central-south volcanic sandy soils in Chile. An experiment encompassing soil preparation (shovel planting vs. subsoiling + bedding), fertilization (B vs. NPKB), and weed control (pre-planting only vs. 2-year banded application) was conducted over two rotations. Survival, diameter, height, and stand-volume responses were compared between rotations at age 3. The second-rotation establishment period received 33% less annual rainfall than the first. Across all treatment combinations, mean survival decreased from 90.5% during the first rotation to 62.2% during the second rotation, while mean stand volume decreased from 6.58 to 1.16 m³ ha⁻¹. During the second rotation, weed control was the only treatment that significantly increased individual-tree and stand growth: plots receiving pre-planting weed control only averaged 38.7% survival and 0.29 m³ ha⁻¹, whereas those receiving additional 2-year banded vegetation control averaged 85.8% survival and 2.02 m³ ha⁻¹ stand volume. These findings indicate that vegetation control is key to sustaining P. radiata productivity. However, progressively unfavorable environmental conditions will jeopardize forest productivity across rotations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

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16 pages, 2419 KB

Open AccessPerspective

Stem Surface Microstructure and Plant–Insect Interactions: A Perspective

by Elena V. Gorb and Stanislav N. Gorb

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2751; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182751 - 9 Sep 2026

Abstract

Plant surfaces form a critical biomechanical and ecological interface between plants and insects. Beyond chemical cues and rewards, the physical micro- and nanostructure of stems can decisively shape insect attachment, locomotion, and visitation patterns. This perspective paper synthesizes a body of work centered [...] Read more.

Plant surfaces form a critical biomechanical and ecological interface between plants and insects. Beyond chemical cues and rewards, the physical micro- and nanostructure of stems can decisively shape insect attachment, locomotion, and visitation patterns. This perspective paper synthesizes a body of work centered on studies by Gorb, Gorb, and collaborators (2017–2024), together with the broader literature cited therein, to develop a framework for understanding stem surface-mediated plant–insect interactions. We integrate comparative, experimental, and biomechanical evidence demonstrating that epicuticular waxes, pubescence, epidermal cell geometry, and surface roughness act each and in combination as a mechanical filter for crawling insects, particularly ants. We propose a unifying conceptual model, in which plant stem surfaces function as scale-dependent mechanical barriers that modulate insect access, balancing ecological trade-offs between attraction and exclusion. The paper further highlights ecological and evolutionary implications as well as methodological advances and discusses opportunities for bioinspired applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Animal Interactions: Highlighting Effects of Plant Anatomy, Natural History, and Environmental Changes)

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23 pages, 24688 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Comparative Anatomical and Compositional Screening of the Pressed Fiber Fraction of Soybean (Glycine max L.) Green Biomass from Different Varieties Under a Single-Year Experimental Condition

by Szilvia Kovács, Rebeka Aszalósné Balogh, Bence József Eged, Attila Péter Kiss, Miklós Gábor Fári and Gábor Csatári

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2750; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182750 - 8 Sep 2026

Abstract

The present study aimed to characterize soybean pressed fiber obtained through wet fractionation of green biomass and evaluate the effects of variety and vegetation window on its composition and valorization potential. Four soybean varieties (Advisor, Bólyi 612, Isidor, and Pannónia kincse) were investigated [...] Read more.

The present study aimed to characterize soybean pressed fiber obtained through wet fractionation of green biomass and evaluate the effects of variety and vegetation window on its composition and valorization potential. Four soybean varieties (Advisor, Bólyi 612, Isidor, and Pannónia kincse) were investigated across two distinct vegetation windows using anatomical, cell wall, biochemical, and pigment analyses. Significant variety-dependent differences were observed in several anatomical traits related to biomass quality. Isidor exhibited the greatest leaf blade thickness, while Advisor showed favorable stem structural characteristics and enhanced cuticle development. Cell wall analysis revealed significant differences in xylan, arabinan, and Klason lignin between vegetation windows, while glucan content was affected by both variety and vegetation window, with the highest value observed in Advisor during the first vegetation window. Photosynthetic pigment composition remained relatively stable among varieties and vegetation windows. Because the two vegetation windows occurred during different calendar periods, the observed differences may reflect both plant developmental status and seasonal environmental conditions and cannot be exclusively attributed to harvest timing. This one-year exploratory study provides baseline information on soybean pressed fiber as a potential secondary biomass resource. Further multi-year and multi-environment studies are required to assess the stability and environmental consistency of these findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Physiology and Metabolism)

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28 pages, 16283 KB

Open AccessArticle

Unraveling the Genetic Basis of Cold Tolerance in Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) via QTL Mapping and Identification of Ahcold18 as a Candidate RWP-RK Transcription Factor

by Yu Zhang, Shunli Cui, Xiukun Li, Mingyu Hou, Yingru Liu, Guoqing Yu, Shutao Yu, Haixin Wang, Puxiang Shi, Hongtao Deng and Lifeng Liu

Plants 2026, 15(18), 2749; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15182749 - 8 Sep 2026

Abstract

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is a globally vital oil and cash crop. However, frequent cold stress severely compromises its yield stability. To address this challenge, we conducted quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping for two cold tolerance-associated traits, namely relative emergence rate (RER) [...] Read more.

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is a globally vital oil and cash crop. However, frequent cold stress severely compromises its yield stability. To address this challenge, we conducted quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping for two cold tolerance-associated traits, namely relative emergence rate (RER) and relative emergence index (REI), across four distinct environments using a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population derived from the cold-tolerant landrace Silihong and cold-sensitive cultivar Jinonghei 3. Two core QTLs associated with cold tolerance were detected, including qRER6 stable across all environments with PVE of 4.91–5.15% and a co-localized QTL qRER18.1/qREI18.2 on chromosome 18 that governs both target traits with PVE of 14.56–14.71% and 10.34%. Through integrated analysis of QTL mapping and Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), Arahy.657RUG was identified as a candidate cold tolerance gene and designated Ahcold18. Differential expression analysis and heterologous overexpression in Arabidopsis thaliana under freezing stress (−9 °C) showed that Ahcold18 enhances plant survival under low-temperature stress, suggesting a general role in cold tolerance that warrants further investigation in the context of peanut chilling tolerance. A gene-based KASP marker (KASP-2374669), developed from variant sites within Ahcold18, showed preliminary association with RER and REI in the RIL population; however, further validation in diverse germplasm is required to confirm its utility for marker-assisted selection. This study provides a critical genetic resource and a precise technical tool for marker-assisted breeding of cultivated peanut with cold tolerance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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