Can We Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance by Using Antimicrobials Better?
Abstract
:1. Introduction: The Problem of Antimicrobial Resistance
2. Appropriate Antimicrobial Usage
2.1. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics
2.1.1. Dosage
2.1.2. Distribution and Excretion
2.2. Combination Therapy
2.3. Choice of Antimicrobial
2.3.1. Bacteria-Antimicrobial Pairings
2.3.2. Rapid Diagnostic Techniques
2.3.3. Antibiotic Surveillance and Stewardship
2.3.4. Antimicrobial Cycling
3. Conclusions
Conflict of Interest
References
- Boucher, H.; Talbot, G.H.; Bradley, J.S. Bad bugs, no drugs: no ESKAPE! An Update from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2009, 425, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rice, L.B. Federal funding for the study of antimicrobial resistance in nosocomial pathogens: no ESKAPE. J. Infect. Dis. 2008, 197, 1079–1081. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arias, C.A.; Murray, B.E. Antibiotic-resistant bugs in the 21st century – a clinical super challenge. N. Engl. J. Med. 2012, 360, 439–443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Livermore, D.M. Has the era of unbeatable infections arrived? J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2009, 64, 29–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carlet, J.; Jarlier, V.; et al. Ready for a world without antibiotics? The Pensieres Antibiotic Resistance Call to Action. Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Contr. 2012, 1, 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Landman, D.; Georgescu, C.; Martin, D.A.; Quale, J. Polymyxins Revisited. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2008, 21, 449–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coates, A.R.M.; Halls, G.; Hu, Y. Novel classes of antibiotics or more of the same? Brit. J. Pharmacol. 2009, 163, 184–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Talbot, G.H.; Bradley, J.; Edwards, J.E., Jr.; Gilbert, D.; Scheld, M.; Bartlett, J.G. Bad bugs need drugs: an update on the development pipeline from the antimicrobial availability task force of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2006, 42, 657–668. [Google Scholar]
- Talbot, G.H. What is the pipeline for Gram-negative pathogens? Expert Rev. Anti. Infect. Ther. 2008, 6, 39–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Laudano, J.B. Ceftaroline fosamil: a new broad-spectrum cephalosporin. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2011, 66, 11–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lopez-Rojas, R.; Sanchez-Cespedes, J.; Docobo-Perez, F.; Domınguez-Herrera, J.; Vila, J.; Pachon, J. Pre-clinical studies of a new quinolone (UB-8902) against Acinetobacter baumannii resistant to ciprofloxacin. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2011, 38, 355–359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sutcliffe, J.A. Antibiotics in development targeting protein synthesis. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2011, 1241, 122–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caron, W.; Mousa, S. Prevention strategies for antimicrobial resistance: a systematic review of the literature. Infection and Drug Resistance 2010, 3, 25–33. [Google Scholar]
- Hughes, J.M. Preserving the lifesaving power of antimicrobial agents. JAMA 2011, 305, 1027–1028. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rashmi, S. Antibacterial resistance: Current problems and possible solutions. Indian J. Med. Sci. 2005, 59, 120–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Health Organization. Global Strategy for Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance. World Health Organization. 2001. Available online: http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/drugresist/WHO_CDS_CSR_DRS_2001_2_EN/en/ (access on 6 June 2013).
- Sharma, R.; Sharma, C.L.; Kapoor, B. Antibacterial resistance: Current problems and possible solutions. IJMS 2005, 59, 120–129. [Google Scholar]
- Huttner, B.; Goossens, H.; Verheji, T.; Harbath, S. Characteristics and outcomes of public campaigns aimed at improving the use of antibiotics in outpatients in high-income countries. Lancet 2010, 10, 17–31. [Google Scholar]
- Gould, I.M. A review of the role of antibiotic policies in the control of antibiotic resistance. JAC 1999, 43, 459–465. [Google Scholar]
- Collignon, P.J. Antibiotic resistance. Med. J. Aust. 2002, 177, 325–329. [Google Scholar]
- Molstad, S.; Erntell, M.; Hanberger, H.; et al. Sustained reduction of antibiotic use and low bacterial resistance: 10-year follow-up of the Swedish Strama programme. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2008, 8, 125–132. [Google Scholar]
- Nicole, L.E. Infection control programmes to contain antimicrobial resistance. WHO, Department of Communicable Disease Surveillance and Response, 2001. Available online: http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/drugresist/WHO_CDS_CSR_DRS_2001_7/en/ (access on 6 June 2013). [Google Scholar]
- Essack, S.Y. Strategies for the Prevention and Containment of Antibiotic Resistance. S. A. Fam. Pract. 2006, 48, 51a–51d. [Google Scholar]
- Drlica, C. The mutant selection window and antimicrobial resistance. JAC 2003, 52, 11–17. [Google Scholar]
- Vaidya, V.K. Horizontal Transfer of Antimicrobial Resistance by Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae. J. Lab. Physicians. 2011, 3, 37–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barker, K. Antibiotic resistance: a current perspective. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacology. 1999, 48, 109–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olofsson, S.K.; Cars, O. Optimizing drug exposure to minimize selection of antibiotic resistance. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2007, 1, S129–S136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blaser, J.; Stone, B.B.; Griner, M.C.; Zinner, S.H. Comparative study with enoxacin and netilmicin in a pharmacodynamics model to determine importance of ratio of antibiotic peak concentration to MIC for bactericidal activity and emergence of resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1987, 31, 1054–1060. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marchbanks, C.R.; McKiel, J.R.; Gilbert, D.H.; et al. Dose ranging and fractionation of intravenous ciprofloxacin againsts Pseudomonas aruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus in an in vitro model of infection. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1993, 37, 1756–1763. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drusano, G.I.; Johnson, D.E.; Rosen, M.; Standiford, H.C. Pharmacodynamics of a fluroquinolone antimicrobial agent in a neutropenic rat model of Pseudomonas species. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1993, 37, 483–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stearne, L.E.; van Boxtel, D.; Lemmens, N.; Goessens, W.H.; Mouton, J.W.; Gyssens, I.C. Comparative study of the effects of ceftizoxime, piperacillin, and piperacillin-tazobactam concentrations on antibacterial activity and selection of antibiotic-resistant mutants of Enterobacter cloacae and Bacteroides fragilis in vitro and in vivo in mixed-infection abscesses. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004, 48, 1688–1698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wiuff, C.; Lykkesfeldt, J.; Svendsen, O.; Aarestrup, F.M. The effects of oral and intramuscular administration and dose escalation of enrofloxacin on the selection of quinolone resistance among Salmonella and coliforms in pigs. Res. Vet. Sci. 2003, 75, 185–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guillemot, D.; Carbon, C.; Balkau, B.; et al. Low dosage and long treatment duration of b-lactam: risk factors for carriage of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. JAMA 1998, 279, 365–370. [Google Scholar]
- Davidson, R.; Cavalcanti, R.; Brunton, J.L.; et al. Resistance to levofloxacin and failure of treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002, 346, 747–750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomas, J.K.; Forrest, A.; Bhavnani, S.M.; et al. Pharmacodynamic evaluation of factors associated with the development of bacterial resistance in acutely ill patients during therapy. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1998, 42, 521–527. [Google Scholar]
- Mitchison, D. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic parameters and the choice of high-dosage rifamycins. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 2012, 16, 1186–1189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mitchison, D. The diagnosis and therapy of tuberculosis during the past 100 years. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2005, 171, 699–706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mitchison, D. How drug resistance emerges as a result of poor compliance during short course chemotherapy for tuberculosis. Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 1998, 2, 10–15. [Google Scholar]
- Blondeau, J.M.; Zhao, X.; Hansen, G.; Drilica, K. Mutant Prevention Concentrations of Fluoroquinolones for Clinical Isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2001, 45, 433–438. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cui, J.; Liu, Y.; Wang, R.; Tong, W.; Drlica, K.; Zhao, X. The mutant selection window in rabbits infected with Staphylococcus aureus. J. Infect. Dis. 2006, 194, 1601–1608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, Y.L.; Hu, L.F.; Mei, Q.; Cheng, J.; Liu, Y.Y.; Ye, Y.; Li, J.B. Testing the mutant selection window in rabbits infected with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus exposed to vancomycin. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2012, 67, 2700–2706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Williams, J.; Sefton, A. The Prevention of Antibiotic Resistance during Treatment. Infection 1999, 27, 29–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, M.; Lee, J.; Carroll, M.W.; et al. Linezolid for treatment of chronic extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 2012, 367, 1508–1518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Craig, W.A. Does the dose matter? Clin. Infect. Dis. 2001, 15, S233–S237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drusano, G.L. Prevention of resistance: a goal for dose selection for antimicrobial agents. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2003, 36, S42–S50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Geli, P.; Laxminarayan, R.; Dunne, M.; Smith, D.L. ‘‘One-Size-Fits-All’’? Optimizing Treatment Duration for Bacterial Infections. PLOS one. 2012, 7, 1–10. [Google Scholar]
- Rashid, M.U.; Weintraub, A.; Nord, C.E. Effect of new antimicrobial agents on the ecological balance of human microflora. Anaerobe. 2012, 18, 249–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brunner, M.; Derendorf, H.; Muller, M. Microdialysis for in vivo pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic characterization of anti-infective drugs. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 2005, 5, 495–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cars, O. Pharmacokinetics of antibiotics in tissues and tissue fluids: a review. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. Suppl. 1990, 74, 23–33. [Google Scholar]
- Cars, O.; Ogren, S. Antibiotic tissue concentrations: methodological aspects and interpretation of results. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. Suppl. 1985, 44, 7–15. [Google Scholar]
- Gullberg, E.; Cao, S.; Berg, O.G.; Ilbäck, C.; Sandegren, L.; Hughes, D. Selection of Resistant Bacteria at Very Low Antibiotic Concentrations. PLoS Pathog. 2011, 7, e1002158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, X.; Drlica, K. Restricting the Selection of Antibiotic-Resistant Mutants: A General Strategy Derived from Fluoroquinolone Studies. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2001, 333, S147–S156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oh, H.; Nord, C.E.; Barkholt, L.; Hedberg, M.; Edlund, C. Ecological disturbances in intestinal microflora caused by clinafloxacin, an extended- spectrum quinolone. Infection. 2000, 28, 272–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lode, H.; Von der Höh, N.; Ziege, S.; Borner, K.; Nord, C.E. Ecological effects of linezolid versus amoxicillin/clavulanic acid on the normal intestinal microflora. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 2001, 33, 899–903. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pletz, M.W.R.; Rau, M.; Bulitta, J.; De Roux, A.; et al. Ertapenem Pharmacokinetics and Impact on Intestinal Microflora, in Comparison to Those of Ceftriaxone, after Multiple Dosing in Male and Female Volunteers. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2004, 48, 3765–3772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- DiNubile, M.J.; Chow, J.W.; Satishchandran, V.; Polis, A.; Motyl, M.R.; Abramson, M.A.; Teppler, H. Acquisition of Resistant Bowel Flora during a Double-Blind Randomized Clinical Trial of Ertapenem versus Piperacillin-Tazobactam Therapy for Intraabdominal Infections. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2005, 49, 3217–3221. [Google Scholar]
- Isha, C.; Nimrata, S.; Rana, A.C.; Surbhi, G. Oral sustained release drug delivery system: an overview. Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2012, 3, 57–62. [Google Scholar]
- Hoffman, A.; Horwitz, E.; Hess, S.; et al. Implications on emergence of antimicrobial resistance as a critical aspect in the design of oral sustained release delivery systems of antimicrobials. Pharm. Res. 2008, 25, 667–671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goren, M.G.; Carmeli, Y.; Schwaber, M.J.; Chmelnitsky, I.; Schechner, V.; Navon-Venezia, S. Transfer of Carbapenem-Resistant Plasmid from Klebsiella pneumoniae ST258 to Escherichia coli in Patient. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2010, 16, 1014–1017. [Google Scholar]
- Goldstein, E.J. Beyond the target pathogen: ecological effects of the hospital formulatory. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2011, 1, S21–S31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hurdle, J.G.; O’Neill, A.J.; Mody, L.; Chopra, I.; Bradley, S.F. In vivo transfer of high-level mupirocin resistance from Staphylococcus epidermidis to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus associated with failure of mupirocin prophylaxis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2005, 56, 1166–1168. [Google Scholar]
- Paster, B.J.; Olsen, I.; Aas, J.A.; Dewhirst, F.E. The breadth of bacterial diversity in the human periodontal pocket and other oral sites. Periodontol 2000 2006, 42, 80–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keijser, B.J.F.; Zaura, E.; Huse, S.M.; van der Vossen, J.M.B.M.; Schuren, F.H.J.; Montijn, R.C.; ten Cate, J.M.; Crielaard, W. Pyrosequencing analysis of the oral microflora of healthy adults. J. Dent. Res. 2008, 87, 1016–1020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gill, S.R.; Pop, M.; Deboy, R.T.; Eckburg, P.B.; Turnbaugh, P.J.; Samuel, B.S.; Gordon, J.I.; Relman, D.A.; Fraser-Liggett, C.M.; Nelson, K.E. Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gut microbiome. Science 2006, 312, 1355–1359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, Z.; Tseng, C.H.; Pei, Z.; Blaser, M.J. Molecular analysis of human forearm superficial skin bacterial biota. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 2927–2932. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fierer, N.; Hamady, M.; Lauber, C.L.; Knight, R. The influence of sex, handedness, and washing on the diversity of hand surface bacteria. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mitchison, D. Problems of drug resistance. Br. Med. Bull. 1954, 69, 640–641. [Google Scholar]
- Fox, W.; Sutherland, I.; Daniels, M. A five-year assessment of patients in a controlled trial of streptomycin in pulmonary tuberculosis. Q. J. Med. 1954, 23, 347–366. [Google Scholar]
- Grüneberg, R.N. The microbiological rationale for the combination of sulphonamides with trimethoprim. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1979, 5, 27–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boyd, N.; Nailor, M.D. Combination antibiotic therapy for empiric and definitive treatment of gram-negative infections: insights from the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists. Pharmacotherapy 2011, 31, 1073–1084. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dagan, R.; Bar-David, Y. Comparison of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid (augmentin) for the treatment of nonbullous impetigo. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1989, 143, 916–918. [Google Scholar]
- Solapure, S.; Dinesh, N.; Shandil, R.; Ramachandran, S.S.; et al. In vitro and in vivo efficacy of beta-lactams against replicating and slowly growing/non replicating M. tuberculosis. Antimicro. Agents Chemo. 2013, 57, 2506–2510. [Google Scholar]
- Bliziotis, I.; Samonis, G.; Vardakas, K.; Chrysanthopoulou, S.; Falagas, M. Effect of Aminoglycoside and b-Lactam Combination Therapy versus b-Lactam Monotherapy on the Emergence of Antimicrobial Resistance: A Meta-analysis of Randomized, Controlled Trials. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2005, 41, 149–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gerber, A.U.; Vastola, A.P.; Brandel, J.; Craig, W.A. Selection of aminoglycoside-resistant variants of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in an in vivo model. J. Infect. Dis. 1982, 146, 691–697. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mouton, J. Combination Therapy as a Tool to Prevent Emergence of Bacterial Resistance. Infection. 1999, 27, 24–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Michalsen, H.; Bergan, I. Azlocillin with and without an aminoglycoside against respiratory tract infections in children with cystic fibrosis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 1981, 29, 92–97. [Google Scholar]
- Traugott, K.A.; Echevarria, K.; Maxwell, P.; Green, K.; Lewis, J.S., 2nd. Monotherapy or combination therapy? The Pseudomonas aeruginosa conundrum. Pharmacotherapy. 2011, 31, 598–608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Unemo, M.; Shafer, W.M. Antibiotic resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae: origin, evolution, and lessons learned for the future. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2011, 1230, E19–E28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bonhoeffer, S.; Lipsitch, M.; Levin, B.R. Evaluating treatment protocols to prevent antibiotic resistance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1997, 94, 12106–12111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hurdle, J.; O’Neill, A.; Chopra, I.; Lee, R. Targeting bacterial membrane function: an unexploited mechanism for treating persistent infections. Nature Reviews. 2011, 9, 62–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silver, L.L. Multi-targeting by monotherapeutic antibacterials. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2007, 6, 41–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leung, A.K.; Newman, R.; Kemar, A.; Davies, D.H. Rapid antigen detection testing in diagnosing group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis. Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn. 2006, 6, 761–766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Madurell, J.; Balagué, M.; Gomez, M.; Cots, J.M.; Llor, C. Impact of rapid antigen detection testing on antibiotic prescription in acute pharyngitis in adults. Faringocat Study: a multicentric randomized controlled trial. BMC Fam. Pract. 2010, 11, 25–29. [Google Scholar]
- Burkhardt, O.; Ewig, S.; Giesdorf, S.; Giersdorf, S.; Harmann, O.; Wegscheider, K.; Hummers-Pradier, E.; Welte, T. Procalcotonin guidance and reduction of antibiotic use in acute respiratory tract infection. Eur. Respir. J. 2010, 36, 601–607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harris, A.D.; Furuno, J.P.; et al. Targeted Surveillance of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Its Potential Use To Guide Empiric Antibiotic Therapy. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2010, 54, 3143–3148. [Google Scholar]
- Masterton, R.G. Surveillance studies: how can they help the management of infection? JAC 2000, 46, 53–58. [Google Scholar]
- Enne, V.I.; Livermore, D.M.; Stephens, P.; Hall, L.M.C. Persistence of sulphonamide resistance in Escherichia coli in the UK despite national prescribing restriction. Lancet 2001, 357, 1325–1328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bennett, K.M.; Scarborough, J.E.; Sharpe, M.; et al. Implementation of antibiotic rotation protocol improves antibiotic susceptibility profile in a surgical intensive care unit. J. Trauma. 2007, 63, 307–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brown, E.; Nathwani, D. Antibiotic cycling: a systematic review of the evidence of efficacy. JAC 2005, 55, 6–9. [Google Scholar]
© 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
Share and Cite
Soothill, G.; Hu, Y.; Coates, A. Can We Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance by Using Antimicrobials Better? Pathogens 2013, 2, 422-435. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens2020422
Soothill G, Hu Y, Coates A. Can We Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance by Using Antimicrobials Better? Pathogens. 2013; 2(2):422-435. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens2020422
Chicago/Turabian StyleSoothill, Germander, Yanmin Hu, and Anthony Coates. 2013. "Can We Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance by Using Antimicrobials Better?" Pathogens 2, no. 2: 422-435. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens2020422