Soil Water and Phreatic Evaporation in Shallow Groundwater during a Freeze–Thaw Period
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Test Conditions and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. The Soil Freezing and Thawing Process at the ExperimentalStation
3.2.The Characteristics of the Soil Moisture Distribution
3.3.Phreatic Evaporation
3.3.1. Phreatic Evaporation during Freezing Period
3.3.2. Phreatic Evaporation during Thawing Period
3.3.3. Relationship between the Total Phreatic Evaporation and the GTD during the Freeze-Thaw Period
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Babajimopoulos, C.; Panoras, A.; Georgoussis, H.; Arampatzis, G.; Hatzigiannakis, E.; Papamichail, D. Contribution to irrigation from shallow water table under field conditions. Agric. Water Manag. 2007, 92, 205–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brunner, P.; Li, H.T.; Kinzelbach, W.; Li, W.P.; Dong, X.G. Extracting phreatic evaporation from remotely sensed maps of evapotranspiration. Water Resour. Res. 2008, 44, 381–392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Northey, J.E.; Christen, E.W.; Ayars, J.E.; Jankowski, J. Occurrence and measurement of salinity stratification in shallow groundwater in the Murrumbidgee Irrigation Area, south-eastern Australia. Agric. Water Manag. 2006, 81, 23–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ibrahimi, M.K.; Miyazaki, T.; Nishimura, T.; Imoto, H. Contribution of shallow groundwater rapid fluctuation to soil salinization under arid and semiarid climate. Arab. J. Geosci. 2014, 7, 3901–3911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ren, J.; Wu, Q.; Zheng, X.; Xu, M. The studies of regional water circulation patterns in the Yerqiang River Basin. J. Ocean Univ. China 2006, 5, 357–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walvoord, M.A.; Striegl, R.G. Increased groundwater to stream discharge from permafrost thawing in the Yukon River basin: Potential impacts on lateral export of carbon and nitrogen. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 34, L12402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Irvine, E.C.; Western, A.W.; Costelloe, J.F. Uncertainties around modelling of steady-state phreatic evaporation with field soil profiles of δ18O and chloride. J. Hydrol. 2014, 511, 229–241. [Google Scholar]
- Soppe, R.W.; Ayars, J.E. Characterizing ground water use by safflower using weighing lysimeters. Agric. Water Manag. 2003, 60, 59–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, H.; Wang, W.; Liu, B. The daily evaporation characteristics of deeply buried phreatic water in an extremely arid region. J. Hydrol. 2014, 514, 172–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hurst, C.A.; Thorburn, P.J.; Lockington, D.; Bristow, K.L. Sugarcane water use from shallow water tables: Implications for improving irrigation water use efficiency. Agric. Water Manag. 2004, 65, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sepaskhah, A.R.; Kanooni, A.; Ghasemi, M.M. Estimating water table contributions to corn and sorghum water use. Agric. Water Manag. 2003, 58, 67–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, S.; Tian, C.; Song, Y.; Chen, X.; Li, Y. Models for calculating phreatic water evaporation on bare and Tamarix-vegetated lands. Chin. Sci. Bull. 2006, 51, 43–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, S.; Lei, J.; Xu, X.; Song, Y.; Tian, C.; Chen, X.; Li, X. Theoretical analysis of the limiting rate of phreatic evaporation for aeolian sandy soil in Taklimakan Desert. Chin. Sci. Bull. 2008, 53, 119–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, S.; Zhao, R.; Tian, C.; Song, Y. Empirical models of calculating phreatic evaporation from bare soil in Tarim river basin, Xinjiang. Environ. Earth Sci. 2009, 377, 663–668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raes, D.; Deprost, P. Model to assess water movement from a shallow water table to the root zone. Agric. Water Manag. 2003, 62, 79–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, X.; Ling, M.; Zhou, Q.; Zhang, Z.; Cheng, Q. Numerical modeling the role of rubber dams on groundwater recharge and phreatic evaporation loss in riparian zones. Environ. Earth Sci. 2012, 65, 345–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, Y.; Ren, L.; Lu, H. Effect of water table depth on growth and yield of soybean Yudou 16. J. Hydrol. Eng. 2013, 18, 1070–1076. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, H.; Wu, F.; Zhan, H.; Qiu, F.; Wang, W. The effect of precipitation pulses on evaporation of deeply buried phreatic water in extra-arid areas. Vadose Zone J. 2016, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kang, S.; Zhang, F.; Hu, X.; Zhang, J. Benefits of CO2 enrichment on crop plants are modified by soil water status. Plant Soil 2002, 238, 69–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zwart, S.J.; Bastiaanssen, W.G. Review of measured crop water productivity values for irrigated wheat rice, cotton and maize. Agric. Water Manag. 2004, 69, 115–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, H.; Vicente-serrano, S.M.; Tao, F.; Zhang, X.; Wang, P.; Zhang, C.; Chen, Y.; Zhu, D.; El Kenawy, A. Monitoring winter wheat drought threat in Northern China using multiple climate-based drought indices and soil moisture during 2000-2013. Agric. For. Meteorol. 2016, 228, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haghverdi, A.; Yonts, C.D.; Reichert, D.L.; Irmak, S. Impact of irrigation, surface residue cover and plant population on sugarbeet growth and yield, irrigation water use efficiency and soil water dynamics. Agric. Water Manag. 2017, 180, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, X.; Huo, Z.; Feng, S.; Guo, P.; Guan, H. Estimating groundwater evapotranspiration from irrigated cropland incorporating root zone soil texture and moisture dynamics. J. Hydrol. 2016, 543, 501–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martinez, J.A.; Dominguez, F.; Miguez-Macho, G. Effects of a groundwater scheme on the simulation of soil moisture and evapotranspiration over Southern South America. J. Hydrometeorol. 2016, 17, 2941–2957. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dall’Amico, M.; Endrizzi, S.; Gruber, S.; Rigon, R. A robust and energy-conserving model of freezing variably-saturated soil. Cryosphere 2011, 5, 469–484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jafarov, E.E.; Marchenko, S.S.; Romanovsky, V.E. Numerical modeling of permafrost dynamics in Alaska using a high spatial resolution dataset. Cryosphere 2012, 6, 613–624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harlan, R.L. Analysis of coupled heat-fluid transport in partially frozen soil. Water Resour. Res. 1973, 9, 1314–1323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jansson, P.E.; Halldin, S. Soil Water and Heat Model: Technical Description; Swedish Coniferous Forest Project. Tech. Rep. 26; Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences: Uppsala, Sweden, 1980. [Google Scholar]
- Flerchinger, G.N.; Saxton, K.E. Simultaneous heat and water model of freezing snow-residue-soil system II. Field verification. Trans. ASAE 1989, 32, 573–578. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Šimůnek, J.; van Genuchten, M.T.; Šejna, M. Recent developments and applications of the HYDRUS computer software packages. Vadose Zone J. 2016, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, Y.; Si, B.C.; He, H.L.; Xu, J.H.; Peth, S.; Horn, R. Modeling of coupled water and heat transfer in freezing and thawing soils, Inner Mongolia. Water 2016, 8, 424. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yi, F.H.; Wang, S.; Ye, R.H. Preliminary research of soil freezing on water movement in barley and wheat fields. Barley Sci. 1997, 53, 23–25. [Google Scholar]
- Musa, A.; Liu, Y.; Wang, A.; Niu, C. Characteristics of soil freeze-thaw cycles and their effects on water enrichment in the rhizosphere. Geoderma 2016, 264, 132–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beldring, S.; Gottschalk, L.; Seibert, J.; Tallaksen, L.M. Distribution of soil moisture and groundwater levels at patch and catchment scales. Agric. For. Meteorol. 2000, 98–99, 305–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Iwata, Y.; Hirota, T.; Hayashi, M.; Suzuki, S.; Hasegawa, S. Effects of frozen soil and snow cover on cold-season soil water dynamics in Tokachi, Japan. Hydrol. Process. 2010, 24, 1755–1765. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, J.; Li, D. Numerical analysis of coupled water, heat and stress in saturated freezing soil. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 2012, 72, 43–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, M.; Huang, J.; Wu, J.; Tan, X.; Jansson, P.E. Experimental study on evaporation from seasonally frozen soils under various water, solute and groundwater conditions in Inner Mongolia, China. J. Hydrol. 2016, 535, 46–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, X.; Hu, Q. Groundwater influences on soil moisture and surface evaporation. J. Hydrol. 2004, 297, 285–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaplan, D.; Muñoz-Carpena, R. Complementary effects of surface water and groundwater on soil moisture dynamics in a degraded coastal floodplain forest. J. Hydrol. 2011, 398, 221–234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Newman, G.P.; Wilson, G.W. Heat and mass transfer in unsaturated soils during soil freezing. Can. Geotech. J. 1997, 34, 63–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, R.; Shi, H.; Flerchinger, G.N.; Akae, T.; Wang, C. Simulation of freezing and thawing soils in Inner Mongolia Hetao irrigation district, China. Geoderma 2012, 173, 28–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boike, J.; Roth, K. Time domain reflectometry as a field method for measuring water content and soil water electrical conductivity at a continuous permafrost site. Permafr. Periglac. Process. 1997, 8, 359–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- He, H.L.; Dyck, M. Application of multiphase dielectric mixing models for understanding the effective dielectric permittivity of frozen soils. Vadose Zone J. 2013, 12, 1–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Watanabe, K.; Wake, T. Measurement of unfrozen water content and relative permittivity of frozen unsaturated soil using NMR and TDR. Cold Reg. Sci. Technol. 2011, 59, 34–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bittelli, M.; Flury, M.; Roth, K. Use of dielectric spectroscopy to estimate ice content in frozen porous media. Water Resour. Res. 2004, 40, 1149–1155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, G.; Si, B.C. Soil ice content measurement using a heat pulse probe method. Can. J. Soil Sci. 2011, 91, 235–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, X.; Zhou, J.; Kinzelbach, W.; Stauffer, F. Simultaneous measurement of unfrozen water content and ice content in frozen soil using gamma ray attenuation and TDR. Water Resour. Res. 2014, 50, 9630–9655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hayhoe, H.; Bailey, W. Monitoring changes in total and unfrozen water content in seasonally frozen soil using time domain reflectometry and neutron moderation techniques. Water Resour. Res. 1985, 21, 1077–1084. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gardner, W.H.; Klute, A. Water content. In Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Methods; American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, USA, 1986; pp. 493–544. [Google Scholar]
- Sartz, R.S. Interpreting Neutron Probe Reading in Frozen Soil; Res. Note NC-77; U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest: Saint Paul, MN, USA, 1969. [Google Scholar]
- Willatt, S.T. Changes in water content in and under frozen soil in Iowa, USA. Geoderma 1979, 22, 323–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sheppard, M.I.; Kay, B.D.; Loch, P.G. The coupled transport of water and heat in freezing soils: A field study. Can. J. Soil Sci. 1981, 61, 417–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, J.; Zheng, X.; Zang, H.; Liu, P.; Sun, M. Numerical Simulation of Moisture and Heat Coupled Migration in Seasonal Freeze-thaw Soil Media. J. Pure Appl. Microbiol. 2013, 7, 151–158. [Google Scholar]
- Zheng, X.; Chen, J.; Xing, S. Soil infiltration capacity and infiltration parameters of freezing and thawing soil under different surface coverages. Trans. Chin. Soc. Agric. Eng. 2009, 25, 23–28. [Google Scholar]
- Zheng, X.; Flerchinger, G.N. Infiltration into freezing and thawing soils under different field management. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 2001, 127, 176–182. [Google Scholar]
- Zhang, X.; Sun, S. The impact of soil freezing/thawing process on water and energy balances. Adv. Atmos. Sci. 2011, 28, 169–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheng, Q.; Sun, Y.; Qin, Y.; Xue, X.; Cai, X.; Sheng, W.; Zhao, Y. In situ measuring soil ice content with a combined use of dielectric tube sensor and neutron moisture meter in a common access tube. Agric. For. Meteorol. 2013, 171, 249–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seyfried, M.S.; Murdock, M.D. Use of air permeability to estimate infiltrability of frozen soil. J. Hydrol. 1997, 202, 95–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hansson, K.; Šimůnek, J.; Mizoguchi, M.; Lundin, L.C.; van Genuchten, M.T. Water flow and heat transport in frozen soil: Numerical solution and freeze-thaw applications. Vadose Zone J. 2004, 3, 693–704. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Soil Texture | Mass Percentage of Different Soil Particle Diameter (%) | Maximum Capillary Height (cm) | Prosity (m3·m−3) | Specific Yield (m3·m−3) | Bulk Density (×103 kg·m−3) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.5–2 mm | 0.25–0.5 mm | 0.1–0.25 mm | 0.05–0.1 mm | <0.05 mm | |||||
Sandy Loam | 1.3 | 19.7 | 36.1 | 24.4 | 18.5 | 185 | 0.53 | 0.08 | 1.53 |
Fine Sand | 1.6 | 22.4 | 45.7 | 24.5 | 5.8 | 77 | 0.45 | 0.12 | 1.61 |
Soil Texture | GTD (m) | Regression Coefficient | Significance Test of Regression Equation | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Deviation | Degrees of Freedom | Mean Square Deviation | F | |||||||||
A | B | Qreg. | Qres. | Qtotal | p | n − p − 1 | n − 1 | Sreg. | Sres. | |||
Sandy Loam | 0.5 | 5.801 | −9.714 | 16,076.46 | 1892.53 | 17,968.98 | 1 | 92 | 93 | 16,076.46 | 20.57 | 781.51 |
1.0 | 6.325 | −19.904 | 19,111.77 | 2591.78 | 21,703.55 | 1 | 92 | 93 | 19,111.77 | 28.17 | 678.41 | |
1.5 | 4.875 | −15.988 | 11,362.34 | 2006.63 | 13,358.97 | 1 | 92 | 93 | 11,362.34 | 21.81 | 520.94 | |
2.0 | 1.881 | −5.408 | 1689.37 | 198.68 | 1888.05 | 1 | 92 | 93 | 1689.37 | 2.16 | 782.27 | |
Fine Sand | 0.5 | 4.395 | −8.680 | 9229.04 | 1211.46 | 10,440.50 | 1 | 92 | 93 | 9229.04 | 13.17 | 700.87 |
1.0 | 10.491 | −39.843 | 52,576.51 | 13,548.14 | 66,124.65 | 1 | 92 | 93 | 52,576.51 | 147.26 | 357.03 | |
1.5 | 0.373 | −1.560 | 66.58 | 74.66 | 141.24 | 1 | 92 | 93 | 66.58 | 0.81 | 82.04 | |
2.0 | 0.694 | −1.824 | 229.90 | 50.94 | 280.84 | 1 | 92 | 93 | 229.90 | 0.55 | 415.21 |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Miao, C.; Chen, J.; Zheng, X.; Zhang, Y.; Xu, Y.; Du, Q. Soil Water and Phreatic Evaporation in Shallow Groundwater during a Freeze–Thaw Period. Water 2017, 9, 396. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9060396
Miao C, Chen J, Zheng X, Zhang Y, Xu Y, Du Q. Soil Water and Phreatic Evaporation in Shallow Groundwater during a Freeze–Thaw Period. Water. 2017; 9(6):396. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9060396
Chicago/Turabian StyleMiao, Chunyan, Junfeng Chen, Xiuqing Zheng, Yongbo Zhang, Yongxin Xu, and Qi Du. 2017. "Soil Water and Phreatic Evaporation in Shallow Groundwater during a Freeze–Thaw Period" Water 9, no. 6: 396. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9060396