How Enhancing Atmospheric Monitoring and Modelling can be Effective for the Stockholm Convention on POPs
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Monitoring and Modeling POPs in the Environment
2.1. A few Notes on Measuring and Modeling Ecosystems
Whether we study the motion of pendulum bobs or cannon balls, of planets or galaxies, of fluids in pipes or river beds, or winds in laboratory tunnels or over aircraft wings in the sky, stony solid particles like sand and gravel suspended in moving water in river and harbor models, or underwater missiles like depth charges, we have in the last analysis, to solve a set of one or more differential equations. In many cases the situation is so complex that it may not be possible even to frame the appropriate differential equation or set of differential equations. But our ability to frame it by no means implies our ability to solve it. In fact given a set of differential equations, the odds are heavy against its being amenable to any known treatment. That is why any new way of treating them is so valuable. Group Theory is valuable as it is the master key that solves a large class of equations that can be solved in no other way.Group-theoretical approaches owes it great power to the fact that equations of fluid motion remain invariant not only under the group of transformations of units but also in many cases under groups of transformations such as the group of rotations and translations. This however, is not all. The value of the group-theoretic approach in fluid mechanics does not only depend on its usefulness in solving the differential equations of fluid motion it is also the unifying principle in innumerable questions of fluid mechanics-as indeed it has proven to be in other branches of physics. For instance, it is the very core of modeling analysis whereby we use river, harbor, aerodynamic and other models to study actual fluid behavior experimentally to bridge the gap between hydrodynamical theory and experience.
2.2. Query of Available Data
2.2.1. Baselines
2.2.2. Mixtures
Monitoring Program | Abbreviation | Region of Interest | Number of Sites | Period | Sampling Method | Monitored Compounds * |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arctic monitoring and assessment programme | AMAP | Arctic | 12 (includes 8NCP sites) | 1993–present | Active/non-directional | PCBs, HCB, HCHs, chlordanes, DDTs Additional compounds at 8 NCP-operated sites (see below). |
Northern Contaminants Program (Canada) (part of AMAP) | NCP | Arctic | 8 (part with AMAP) | 1992–present | Active/non-directional | PCBs, DDTs, PAHs, PentaCB, mirex, chlordanes, HEPT, HEPX, PeCB, HCB, HCHs, endrin, aldrin DIEL, ENDO 2002–present: PBDEs November 2000–Feburary 2001: PCDD/Fs 2006–present, Alert station: PFCs |
European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme | CLRTAP–EMEP | Europe including Russia | 18 in 2007 (includes 3 AMAP sites) | 1991–Present | active/nondirectional (12 sites with air and precipitation measurements 6 sites with air only) | As of 2007: PCBs, DDTs, chlordanes, HCB, PAHs, HCHs, HEPT, DIEL |
Global Atmospheric Passive Sampling network | GAPS | Global | 52 (current operation) 95 (since inception) | 2004–present | Passive (PUF disk/XAD/sorbernt impregnated PUF (SE | PCBs, chlordanes, DDTs, HEPT, HEPX, HCHs, DIEL, PBDEs, ENDO 2005: PCNs 2009 at 20 sites: PFCs |
Integrated Atmospheric Deposition Network (US&Canada) | IADN | Great Lakes | 8 (3 in Canada, 5 in USA) | 1990–present | active/non directional | PCBs, chlordanes, ENDO, HCHs, DDTs, HEPT, HEPX, aldrin, endrin, DIEL, HCB, MIREX, PAHs; 2002–present: PBDEs 1995–2005 at Lake Ontario, Canada only: Toxaphene |
Integrated Atmospheric Deposition Network (US&Canada) | IADN | Great Lakes | 8 (3 in Canada, 5 in USA) | 1990–present | active/non directional | PCBs, chlordanes, ENDO, HCHs, DDTs, HEPT, HEPX, aldrin, endrin, DIEL, HCB, MIREX, PAHs; 2002–present: PBDEs 1995–2005 at Lake Ontario, Canada only: Toxaphene |
Integrated Atmospheric Deposition Network (US&Canada) | IADN | GreatLakes | 8 (3 in Canada, 5 in USA) | 1990–present | active/non directional | PCBs, chlordanes, ENDO, HCHs, DDTs, HEPT, HEPX, aldrin, endrin, DIEL, HCB, MIREX, PAHs; 2002–present: PBDEs 1995–2005 at Lake Ontario, Canada only: Toxaphene |
NationalAir Pollution Surveillance (Canada) | NAPS | Canadian Urban | 18 stations | 1969–present | active/nondirectional | PCP, HCB, PAHs, PCBs, PCDD/Fs, PBDEs |
Monitoring Network in the Alpine Region for Persistent and other Organic Pollutants | MONARPOP | European Alpine regions | 3 active air monitoring stations (out of 40 sites) | 2004–present | active/directional (3 stations); passive (SPMD) | PCBs, DDTs, HCB HEPT, DIEL, aldrin, endrin, mirex, PCDD/Fs, HCHs, PAHs, PBDEs |
National Dioxin Air Monitoring Network (US EPA) | NDAMN | USA | 34 | 1998–2004 | active/non directional | PCDD/Fs, co-planar PCBs |
New Jersey Atmospheric deposition Network | NJADN | USA | 9 | 1997–2001 | active/non directional | PCBs, PAHs, DDTs, HCHs, ENDO, aldrin, DIEL |
New Jersey Atmospheric deposition Network | NJADN | USA | 9 | 1997–2001 | active/non directional | PCBs, PAHs, DDTs, HCHs, ENDO, aldrin, DIEL |
Xarxa de Vigilància i Previsió de la Contaminació Atmosfèrica | XVPCA | Catalonia (Spain) | 28 | 1994–present | Active/non-directional | PCDD/Fs, 2003–present:PAHs, co-planar PCBs |
National POPs monitoring network (MONET) | MONET | Europe, Asia, Africa, pacific Islands | Total number of sites deployed to date 245 | 2006–present | passive (PUFdisk); active/nondirectional (at Kosetice) | PAHs, PCBs, HCHs, DTs, HCB, PeCB, at selected sites/dates dioxins |
Chinese POPs Soil and Air Monitoring Program (SAMP), Phase I | SAMP-I | China rural, urban | 97 (4 background, 24 urban, and 69 rural) | 2005–2007 | passive (PUFdisk) | PCBs, chlordanes, DDTs, HEPT, HEPX, HCHs, DIEL, ENDO, PAHs, PBDEs |
Chinese POPs Soil and Air Monitoring Program (SAMP), Phase II | SAMP-II | China urban, rural, background | 12 urban and 4 background | 2008–present | Active/nondirectional | PCBs, chlordanes, DDTs, HEPT, HEPX, HCHs, DIEL, ENDO, PAHs, PBDEs |
Spanish Monitoring Programme on POPs | PNA-COP | Spain | 12 EMEP sites 6 urban sites | 2008–present | Passive (PUFdisk) | PCDD/Fs, non-/monoortho-and majority PCBs, DDTs, HCB, HCH, PBDEs |
The UK Toxic Organic Micro Pollutants (TOMPs) programme | TOMPS | UK | 6 | 1991–Present | Active/non-directional | PCDD/Fs, PCBs, PAHs |
National Dioxins Program (Australia) | Australia | 10 | September 2002–August 2003 | Active/non-directional | PCDD/Fs, co-planar PCBs |
2.2.3. Time Lags and Low Doses
3. Existing Frameworks for Monitoring and Modeling LRT and Fate of POPs
3.1. Challenges in Evaluating Current Levels and Changes over Time
3.1.1. Releases, Emissions Source Receptor and Reverse Modeling
3.1.2. Time Lags, Dynamic Responses, Mixtures, Low Doses
3.1.3. Monitoring, Modeling and QA/ QC for Effectiveness and Science
4. Monitoring and Effectiveness Evaluation Strategies under the SC, LRTAP and M ODSs
4.1. The Stockholm Convention
4.2. The UNECE Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention
4.3. The Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances
5. Closing Remarks
Disclaimer
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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Guardans, R.; Castro-Jiménez, J. How Enhancing Atmospheric Monitoring and Modelling can be Effective for the Stockholm Convention on POPs. Atmosphere 2013, 4, 445-471. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos4040445
Guardans R, Castro-Jiménez J. How Enhancing Atmospheric Monitoring and Modelling can be Effective for the Stockholm Convention on POPs. Atmosphere. 2013; 4(4):445-471. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos4040445
Chicago/Turabian StyleGuardans, Ramon, and Javier Castro-Jiménez. 2013. "How Enhancing Atmospheric Monitoring and Modelling can be Effective for the Stockholm Convention on POPs" Atmosphere 4, no. 4: 445-471. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos4040445