Current Research and Development of Chemotherapeutic Agents for Melanoma
Abstract
:1. Introduction to Melanoma
2. Current Chemotherapeutic Agents
2.1. Alkylating Agents
2.2. Platinum Drugs
2.3. Microtubule-toxin Agents
3. Targeted or Combination Therapy
3.1. Anti-apoptotic Protein Inhibitors
3.2. Signaling Pathway Inhibitor
3.3. Angiogenesis Inhibitor
3.4. Combination of Double Chemotherapeutic Agents
3.5. Combination of 3 Chemotherapeutic Agents
3.6. Combination of Chemotherapeutic and Immunotherapeutic Agents (Biochemotherapy)
4. Alternative Phytomedicine Treatment of Melanoma
Phytochemicals | Mode of actions/targets | References |
---|---|---|
Phenolics | ||
catechins (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) (single or in combination with IFN α-2b or dacarbazine) | anti-proliferative and proapoptotic effects Fas/FasL signaling pathway, Bax, caspases-3, -7 and -9 ↑ tumor growth, metastasis, cell spreading, cell-extracellular matrix, MMP-9, FAK ,NF-κB pathway, and Bcl-2 ↓ | [58,59,60,61,62,72] |
resveratrol | NQO2 and p53 ↑; cell proliferation ↓ | [65,66] |
piceatannol | arrest at cell cycle G2 phase; cyclins A, E, and B1 ↓ | [67] |
curcumin | anti-proliferative and proapoptotic effects; caspase-3 ↑ tumor growth, metastasis, NF-κB, COX-2, MMP, and PRL-3 ↓ | [69,70,71,72] |
apigenin, quercetin, and kaempferol | Bcl-2, p27, and p21 ↑ tumor growth, invasion, metastasis, CDK1, and CDK2 ↓ | [73,74] |
genistein plus cisplatin | Apaf-1 ↑; Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL ↓ | [77] |
Alkaloids | ||
punarnavine | immune response, IL-2, and IFN-γ ↑ metastasis, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, MMP-2, MMP-9, ERK-1, ERK-2, and VEGF ↓ | [78,79] |
9-carbethoxy-3-methylcarbazole, 9-formyl-3-methylcarbazole 1-O-acetylnorpluviine, sternbergine 1-epideacetylbowdensine, crinamine, crinine, hamayne, lycorine, anhydrolycorin-6-one | cytotoxic to melanoma cells | [80,81] |
matrine | anti-proliferative and apoptotic effects; invasion, metastasis, and heparanase ↓ | [107] |
ligusticum | metastasis, CD34, and VEGF ↓ | [108] |
berberine | anti-proliferative and necrotic effects tumor growth ↓ | [109] |
Terpenoids | ||
13-cis-retinoic acid (13-cis-RA), all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) (or in combination with cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil) | anti-proliferative and anti-invasive effects lung metastatic melanoma ↓ | [83] |
β-carotene | caspases-3, -8 and -9 , cytochrome c release, and t-BID ↑; Bcl-2 ↓ | [84] |
lycopene | PDGF-BB and cell migration of stromal fibroblasts ↓ | [85] |
ginsenoside-Rh2 (G-Rh2) | apoptotic effect; caspase-3 and caspase-8 pathway ↑ | [105] |
oridonin | anti-proliferative and apoptotic effects EGFR, Grb2, Ras, and Raf-1 ↓ | [110,111] |
triptolide | tumor growth and cell proliferation ↓ | [112] |
Galactolipid& polyunsaturated fatty acids | ||
1,2-di-O-α-linolenoyl-3-O-β-galactopyranosyl-sn-glycerol (dLGG) | tumor growth, NF-κB, NO, iNOS, COX-2, and PGE2 ↓ | [92] |
n-3 PUFAs | PTEN pathway ↑; angiogenesis and metastasis ↓ | [95,96] |
Plant hormone | ||
jasmonic acid (JA) | tumor growth and metastasis ↓ | [99] |
methyl jasmonate (MJ) | apoptotic effect; caspase-3 ↑ | |
Xanthone | ||
gambogic acid | anti-proliferative effect; Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and caspase-3 ↑ | [106] |
Isothiocyanates | ||
sulforaphane (SFN) | apoptotic effect; IL-2, and IFN-γ ↑ tumor growth, invasion, metastasis, MMP, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and GM-CSF ↓ | [101,102] |
Vitamins | ||
γ-tocotrienol (γ-T3) (single or in combination with docetaxel and dacarbazine) | anti-proliferative and anti-invasive effects E-cadherin, γ-catenin, caspases-3, -7 and -9 ↑ Id-1, Id-2, EGFR, NF-κB p65, Snail, twist, α-SMA, and vimentin ↓ | [103] |
vitamin C (ascorbic acid) | p38 MAPK, IGF II, IGF-IR, and COX-2 ↓ | [104] |
4.1. Phenolic Compounds
4.1.1. Catechins and (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG)
4.1.2. Resveratrol and Piceatannol (3,5,3',4'-tetrahydroxy-trans-stilbene; PICE)
4.1.3. Curcumin
4.1.4. Flavonoids: Apigenin, Quercetin, and Kaempferol
4.1.5. Isoflavonoids: Genistein
4.2. Alkaloids
4.3. Terpenoids
4.4. Galactolipid and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)
4.4.1. 1,2-Di-O-α-linolenoyl-3-O-ß-galactopyranosyl-sn-glycerol (dLGG)
4.4.2. n-3 PUFAs
4.5. Plant Hormone: Jasmonate Family
4.6. Other Nutritional Agents
4.7. Traditional Chinese Medicine
5. Concluding Remarks
References
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Hsan, K.M.; Chen, C.-C.; Shyur, L.-F. Current Research and Development of Chemotherapeutic Agents for Melanoma. Cancers 2010, 2, 397-419. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers2020397
Hsan KM, Chen C-C, Shyur L-F. Current Research and Development of Chemotherapeutic Agents for Melanoma. Cancers. 2010; 2(2):397-419. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers2020397
Chicago/Turabian StyleHsan, Kyaw Minn, Chun-Chieh Chen, and Lie-Fen Shyur. 2010. "Current Research and Development of Chemotherapeutic Agents for Melanoma" Cancers 2, no. 2: 397-419. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers2020397