Next Article in Journal
Impact of Short Term Consumption of Diets High in Either Non-Starch Polysaccharides or Resistant Starch in Comparison with Moderate Weight Loss on Indices of Insulin Sensitivity in Subjects with Metabolic Syndrome
Next Article in Special Issue
Vitamin D Deficiency and the Lung: Disease Initiator or Disease Modifier?
Previous Article in Journal
Vitamin D Levels Are Associated with Cardiac Autonomic Activity in Healthy Humans
Previous Article in Special Issue
Undernutrition in Patients with COPD and Its Treatment
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Flavonoids and Asthma

1
Department of Clinical Application of Biologics, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
2
Department of Immunopathology, WPI Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Nutrients 2013, 5(6), 2128-2143; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5062128
Submission received: 1 April 2013 / Revised: 3 May 2013 / Accepted: 15 May 2013 / Published: 10 June 2013
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Respiratory Disease)

Abstract

:
Asthma is a chronic disease, characterized by airway inflammation, airflow limitation, hyper-reactivity and airway remodeling. It is believed that asthma is caused by the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. The prevalence of allergic diseases, including asthma, has increased worldwide during the past two decades. Although the precise reasons that have caused this increase remain unknown, dietary change is thought to be one of the environmental factors. Flavonoids, which are polyphenolic plant secondary metabolites ubiquitously present in vegetables, fruits and beverages, possess antioxidant and anti-allergic traits, as well as immune-modulating activities. Flavonoids are powerful antioxidants and anti-allergic nutrients that inhibit the release of chemical mediators, synthesis of Th2 type cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13, and CD40 ligand expression by high-affinity immunoglobulin E (IgE) receptor-expressing cells, such as mast cells and basophils. They also inhibit IL-4-induced signal transduction and affect the differentiation of naïve CD4+ T cells into effector T-cells through their inhibitory effect on the activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Various studies of flavonoids in asthmatic animal models have demonstrated their beneficial effects. The results of several epidemiological studies suggest that an increase in flavonoid intake is beneficial for asthma. Moreover, clinical trials of flavonoids have shown their ameliorative effects on symptoms related to asthma. However, these human studies are currently limited; further validation is required to clarify whether an appropriate intake of flavonoids may constitute dietary treatment and for part of a preventive strategy for asthma.

1. Introduction

Asthma is a chronic disease, characterized by airway inflammation, airflow limitation, hyper-reactivity and airway remodeling [1]. The development of inhaled corticosteroids and beta-adrenergic agonists have resulted in a paradigm shift for the treatment of asthma, while a greater understanding of the pathological mechanism of asthma is expected to lead to the development of other innovative drugs [2]. However, currently, asthma affects around 300 million individuals in the world [1], and the prevalence of asthma, as well as other allergic diseases, such as atopic dermatitis, allergic rhinitis and food allergy, has increased worldwide during the past two decades [3,4]. It is believed that the interaction between genetic and environmental factors causes individuals to become sensitized to environmental allergens and to suffer from allergic diseases [5,6,7,8]. Since foods and beverages contain both allergy-promoting and anti-allergic nutrients, it has been proposed that dietary change may be one of the environmental factors responsible for such an increase [9,10,11,12,13]. Vitamins A, C, D and E, minerals, such as selenium, copper, zinc and magnesium, probiotics and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), as well as polyphenols have been shown to possess anti-allergic properties, whereas omega-6 PUFAs are precursors for leukotriene C4, which is known to promote allergic inflammation. Flavonoids, on the other hand, which are polyphenolic plant secondary metabolites, can have powerful antioxidant, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory and immune-modulating effects [14,15]. This review of recent findings discusses the possibility that an appropriate intake of flavonoids may play a role in the prevention and, eventually, in the management of asthma.

2. Biological Properties of Flavonoids

Flavonoids comprise a large group of low-molecular-weight polyphenolic plant metabolites that are found in fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, stems, flowers, roots, bark, dark chocolate, tea, wine and coffee and, thus, are common substances in the daily diet [14,15,16]. Flavonoids, which share a common structure consisting of two aromatic rings (A and B) that are bound together by three carbon atoms that form an oxygenated heterocycle (ring C), are classified into six subclasses: flavones (including luteolin, apigenin and baicalein), flavonols (fisetin, kaempferol, quercetin and myricetin) (Figure 1), flavanones (hesperetin, naringenin and eriodictyol), isoflavones (daidzein and genistein), anthocyanidins (cyanidin and pelargonidin) and flavanols (catechins and proanthocyanidins) [16]. Flavonoids have been found to have several biological effects, that is, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic and immune-modulating, and, also, to possess anti-allergic properties [14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23]. In addition, epidemiological evidence of the beneficial role of flavonoid intake in the fight against the risk of chronic diseases is promising [24,25].
Figure 1. Structure of basic flavonoid skeletons and representative flavones and flavonols.
Figure 1. Structure of basic flavonoid skeletons and representative flavones and flavonols.
Nutrients 05 02128 g001
There is strong evidence that an imbalance between the reducing and oxidizing systems in favor of a more oxidative state is present in asthma and that oxidative stress, associated with the presence of molecules, such as endogenous and exogenous reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, plays a significant role in airway inflammation and is one of the determinants of asthma severity [26,27,28]. Flavonoids are powerful antioxidants, since they stabilize the reactive oxygen species by reacting with the reactive compound of the radicals, scavenge nitric oxide and inhibit xanthine oxidase activity [29,30,31,32].
Immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated sensitization to domestic inhalant allergens, such as dust mites, cockroaches and pets is the most important risk factor for asthma, particularly in children [33]. IgE-mediated immune responses consist of a sensitization phase and an effector phase, both of which have been shown to be affected by the anti-allergic properties possessed by flavonoids. Fewtress and Gomperts first identified the inhibition by flavones of transport ATPase on histamine secretion from rat mast cells [34], which was followed by the discovery of the inhibitory effect of quercetin on allergen-stimulated human basophils [35,36]. Flavonoids were also found to inhibit hexosaminidase release from rat mast cells [37] and to suppress cysteinyl leukotriene synthesis through inhibition of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and/or 5-lipoxygenase [38,39]. As for the suppressive effect of flavonoids on cytokine expression, luteolin, quercetin and baicalein were found to inhibit the secretion of granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) by human cultured mast cells in response to cross-linkage of a high-affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI) [40], and it was subsequently demonstrated that these flavonoids also inhibit the IgE-mediated tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6 production by bone marrow-derived cultured murine mast cells [41]. In addition, we found that some flavonoids suppressed both IL-4 and IL-13 synthesis by allergen- or anti-IgE antibody-stimulated peripheral blood basophils [42,43,44]. Of the 45 known kinds of flavones, flavonols and their related compounds, luteolin, apigenin and fisetin, were the strongest inhibitors with the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of these flavonoids for inhibition of IL-4 synthesis ranging from 2.7 to 5.8 μM. Quercetin and kaempferol are representative of flavonoids associated with a substantial daily intake and were found to have a moderate inhibitory effect on IL-4 synthesis with an IC50 value of 15.7–18.8 μM, but myricetin showed no such effect, even at 30 μM. Luteolin, apigenin and fisetin inhibited IL-4 production by anti-CD3 antibody-stimulated T-cells, but at a relatively high dose (IC50 = 10–19 μM). Matsuda et al. [45] also reported that these three flavonoids inhibited IL-4 and TNF-α synthesis in a rat mast cell line, RBL-2H3. Similarly, luteolin, apigenin and fisetin were found to suppress CD40 ligand expression by activated basophils, whereas myricetin did not have such an effect [46]. In addition, we found that the inhibitory activity of flavonoids on IL-4 and CD40 ligand expression was mediated by their suppressive action on transcriptional factors, such as activator protein 1 (AP-1) and the nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT) [42,47]. For the differentiation of B-cells into IgE producing cells, both the interaction of the CD40 ligand with CD40 and the effect of IL-4 or IL-13 on B cells are required [48], so that the inhibitory properties of flavonoids, such as luteolin, apigenin and fisetin, indicate that they are potentially natural IgE inhibitors.
In addition to the inhibitory effect of flavonoids on IL-4 synthesis, kaempferol reportedly inhibits the activation of IL-4-induced signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)6 by specifically targeting Janus kinase (JAK)3 in hematopoietic cell lines, thus representing another anti-allergic activity of flavonoids [49].
The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcriptional factor that mediates the toxic and biological actions of many aromatic environmental pollutants, such as dioxins [50]. An AhR-based in vitro bioassay of the dioxin (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin [TCDD]) revealed that the flavonoids, apigenin, luteolin, baicalein, quercetin, kaempferol and myricetin, had noticeable inhibitory effects on AhR activation with an EC70 value (equal to 70% of the maximal response to TCDD) of 1.9–5.1 μM, while marked AhR activation was displayed, conversely, by daidzein, resveratrol, naringenin and baicalein, at higher concentrations [51]. It has recently been shown that AhR is a regulator of differentiation of naïve CD4+ T cells into effector T cell subsets [52,53,54,55], which suggests that flavonoids modulate immune functions through their binding to AhR.
Nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-κB) is one of the most important transcriptional factors that contribute pathologically to the development of asthma by inducing inflammatory and immune responses, cell adhesion and anti-apoptosis process [56]. Flavonoids are also known to inhibit NF-κB activation [57].

3. Epidemiological Studies on the Relationship between Flavonoid Intake and the Prevalence or Incidence of Asthma

Epidemiological studies have found that a high intake of fresh fruit and vegetables, both of which include flavonoids, may provide protection against asthma in adults and young adults [58,59]. Numerous cross-sectional or case-control studies also demonstrated the beneficial effect of fruit and vegetables on asthmatic symptoms or lung function in children in various countries and cities [60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70]. However, in the East Midlands and East of England regions of the UK, asthma prevalence was reportedly not associated with dietary fruit intake [71]. Higher maternal intake of fruit and vegetables was found to be associated with lower risk of children developing asthma [72], whereas higher maternal intake of green and yellow vegetables, citrus fruit and beta-carotene during pregnancy was significantly associated with a reduced risk of eczema, but not wheeze, in the offspring [73]. However, whether the beneficial effect of fruit and vegetables observed in these studies was due to flavonoids remained unknown. Moreover, a recent systematic review-based analysis provides evidence that the issues of confounding and effect modification have on the whole have been inadequately handled in observational epidemiologic studies investigating the role of diet in the development of asthma [74].
Few reports have dealt with direct associations between flavonoid intake and asthma. Shaheen et al. [75] reported that the results of a population-based case-control study of 607 cases and 864 controls in South London indicated that apple consumption and red wine intake were negatively associated with, respectively, asthma prevalence and severity, perhaps due to the protective effect of flavonoids, whereas a subsequent study [76] of dietary intake of catechins, flavonols and flavones did not find any significant associations with asthma prevalence or severity. A cohort epidemiological study of 10,054 adults in Finland concerning the association between flavonoid intake and risk of several chronic diseases found a reverse relationship between asthma incidence and higher quercetin, naringenin and hesperetin intakes [77]. Although there have been few reports of case-control or longitudinal studies examining direct associations between flavonoid intake and the prevalence or incidence of asthma, the findings of the epidemiological studies mentioned here suggest that higher flavonoid intake is beneficial for asthma.

4. Efficacy of Flavonoids in Asthmatic Animal Models

Based on the anti-asthmatic characteristics of flavonoids observed in vitro, it was anticipated that administration of flavonoids might have beneficial effects on asthma, and indeed, various flavonoids have been shown to suppress airway inflammation and IgE response in asthmatic models.
As described elsewhere, luteolin, apigenin and fisetin are strong inhibitors of IL-4 synthesis. BALB/c mice were sensitized by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of ovalbumin (OVA) on days 0, 7 and 14, followed by daily aerosol inhalation of OVA beginning from days 19 to 23. Luteolin (0.1, 1.0 or 10 mg/kg) was administered orally and daily during the entire period, or after sensitization, 1 mg/kg was given orally from days 26 to 32. Both during and after sensitization, luteolin at the examined dose significantly suppressed OVA-induced airway bronchoconstriction and bronchial hyper-reactivity [78]. The administration of luteolin also resulted in a reduction in OVA-specific IgE levels in the sera and an increase in interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and a decrease of IL-4 and IL-5 levels in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). The preventative effect of luteolin and omega-3 PUFA supplement on airway responsiveness was also found in Ascaris suum-sensitized cats [79]. In an OVA-sensitized mouse model, apigenin, when administered i.p. at 5 or 10 mg/kg before the last OVA challenge, resulted in a significant inhibition of asthmatic reactions, such as serum IgE elevation, eosinophil accumulation, IL-4, IL-5 and eosinophil peroxidase (EPO) activity in BALF, as well as airway hyper-responsiveness [80]. Similar effects of apigenin at 2 or 20 mg/kg i.p. were observed in an OVA-sensitized model [81]. Intraperitoneal injection of fisetin at 3 mg/kg before OVA aerosol challenge was shown to attenuate lung inflammation, goblet cell hyperplasia and airway hyper-responsiveness [82]. The treatment also reduced expression of the key initiators of allergic airway inflammation (eotaxin-1 and thymic stromal lymphopoietin), Th2-associated cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13) in lung tissues and Th2-predominant transcriptional factor GATA-3 and cytokines in thoracic lymph node cells and splenocytes. While it was previously reported that fisetin suppressed NF-κB activation [57,83], fisetin injection also impaired NF-κB activation in OVA-stimulated lung tissues. Moreover, when fisetin was injected intravenously at 0.3, 1 or 3 mg/kg before OVA aerosol challenge on days 22 to 24, it dose-dependently inhibited OVA-induced increases in total cell count, eosinophil count and IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 levels in BALF [84]. It also attenuated OVA-induced lung tissue eosinophilia and airway mucus production, mRNA expression of adhesion molecules, chitinase, IL-17, IL-33, Muc5ac, a major airway glycoprotein and inducible nitric oxide synthase in lung tissues, as well as airway hyper-responsiveness.
Quercetin and kaempferol are representative of flavonoids associated with a substantial daily intake and have a moderate inhibitory effect on IL-4 synthesis by activated basophils [42,43,44]. Oral administration of quercetin (10 mg/kg) or isoquercitrin (15 mg/kg) was found to suppress eosinophilic inflammation in lung homogenates in an OVA-immunized asthma model [85], while intraperitoneal injection of quercetin (8 or 16 mg/kg) reduced IL-4 expression and EPO activity, but increased IFN-γ expression in this model [86]. The effect of quercetin on asthmatic responses was also studied in OVA-sensitized conscious guinea pigs [87]. Quercetin (7.5 or 15 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly and dose-dependently inhibited both airway resistance on immediate-phase and late-phase response. Quercetin at the dose of 15 mg/kg also inhibited production of histamine, PLA2 and EPO. Single administration of kaempferol (10 or 20 mg/kg) could attenuate OVA challenge-elevated expression of eotaxin-1 and eosinophilic major basic protein via the blockade of NF-κB transactivation, thereby blunting eosinophil accumulation in airway and lung tissue [88]. Similarly, single intraperitoneal injection of sulfuretin (40 μg/kg) two hours after the last OVA challenge reduced airway inflammation, hyper-responsiveness and TNF-α, IL-5 and IL-13 expression in BALF, in association with the inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway [89]. Silibinin and sakuranetin also suppressed allergic airway inflammation via downregulation of NF-κB activity in an OVA-sensitized asthma model mouse [90,91].
It was also reported that nobiletin, a polymethoxyflavonoid, when administered i.p. to OVA-sensitized rats at a dose of 1.5 or 5 mg/kg before OVA aerosol challenge, reduced OVA-induced increases in eosinophils and eotaxin expression [92]. Subsequent investigations also found that flavonoids, such as 3-O-methylquercetin 5,7,3′,4′-O-tetraacetate [93], hesperidin [94], acacetin [95], chrysin [96], genistein [97] and skullcapflavone II [98], produced improvements in a mouse model of OVA-induced allergic asthma. Moreover, narirutin, when administered into OVA-sensitized NC/Nga mice orally at 10 mg/kg, significantly diminished OVA-induced airway inflammation and reduced eosinophilic counts in the peripheral blood and BALF, IL-4 level in BALF and serum IgE concentration [99]. The anti-asthmatic effect of limonene was examined in Dermatophagoides farinae-sensitized asthma models [100]. Intratracheal injection of limonene (1 mg/kg) during the entire experimental period inhibited airway hyper-responsiveness, airway remodeling and reduced the levels of IL-5, IL-13, eotaxin, monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1 and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β in BALF.

5. Human Intervention Studies of Flavonoids in Asthma

These findings regarding the in vitro and in vivo anti-allergic and anti-asthmatic properties of flavonoids strongly support the notion that an appropriate intake of flavonoids may constitute dietary treatment and/or a preventive strategy for asthma or other allergic diseases in humans [44,101,102,103]. Indeed, the results of recent clinical trials using flavonoid extracts or flavonoids indicate that flavonoids have beneficial effects on allergic rhinitis [104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112].
However, only a limited number of clinical trials of flavonoids for asthma have been performed. Pycnogenol, a proprietary mixture of water-soluble bioflavonoids, which is extracted from French maritime pine and contains proanthocyanidins, was found to be effective for asthma. The first trial was performed in a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover design study of 26 patients with asthma of varying severity [113]. The patients were randomly assigned to receive either 1 mg/lb/day (maximum 200 mg/day) pycnogenol or placebo for the first period of four weeks and then to cross over to the alternate regimen for the next four weeks. Almost all of the 22 patients who completed the study responded favorably to pycnogenol, and the treatment led to a significant reduction in serum leukotrienes compared with response to the placebo. Subsequently, a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study involving 60 subjects, aged 6–18 years, was performed over a period of three months to determine the effect of pycnogenol on mild-to-moderate asthma [114]. Compared with subjects taking the placebo, the pycnogenol group showed significantly greater improvement in pulmonary function and asthma symptoms in association with a significant reduction in urinary leukotrienes, which resulted in a reduction in or discontinuation of the use of rescue inhalers for the pycnogenol group. Another recent study, which assessed over a six-month period the efficacy of pycnogenol for improving allergic asthma management of patients with stable, controlled conditions, also showed favorable results [115]. In this study, a daily intake of 100 mg of pycnogenol proved to be effective for better control of signs and symptoms of allergic asthma and could reduce the need for medication. However, due to the small size and limited numbers of these trials and variability in outcomes, further clinical trials of pycnogenol are needed to establish its value for the treatment for asthma [116].

6. Conclusions and Perspectives

Asthma, a common disease worldwide, is the subject of growing concern, because of its increasing rate of prevalence [1]. It has been suggested that dietary changes may contribute to this increase [9,10,11,12,13]. Flavonoids possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-allergic, as well as immune-modulating effects. Various studies of flavonoids in asthmatic models have shown their beneficial effects, whereas the evidence in epidemiological studies and human clinical trials is currently limited. Current findings regarding anti-asthmatic effects of flavonoids are summarized in Table 1. Recent development of databases of the flavonoid content of major vegetables, fruits and beverages, such as by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) [117], the European BioActive Substances in Food Informative System (EuroFIR-BASIS) [118] and the Phenol-Explorer [119,120], can make a valuable contribution to epidemiological studies aimed at clarifying the relationship between flavonoid intake and the prevalence, incidence or severity of asthma. The Phenol-Explorer database was used to determine that the average total intake of flavonoids was 506 mg/day with 51 mg/day of flavonols and 33 mg/day of flavones in France [121], 370.2 mg/day with 24.8 mg/day of flavonols and 5.6 mg/day of flavones in Mediterranean countries and 373.7 mg/day with 29.5 mg/day of flavonols and 4.1 mg/day of flavones in non-Mediterranean countries [122]. Moreover, the EPIC (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition) study, which followed 477,123 subjects (29.8% men) aged 35–70 years old from 10 European countries to investigate the association between intake of flavonoids and lignans and incident gastric cancer, reported that the average intake of flavonoids for men and women was 445 mg/day and 434 mg/day with 26.5 mg/day and 26.7 mg/day of flavonols and 3.7 mg/day and 3.5 mg/day of flavones, respectively [123].
Table 1. Summary of anti-asthmatic effects of flavonoids.
Table 1. Summary of anti-asthmatic effects of flavonoids.
1. Biological properties
Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic and immune-modulating activities.
2. Hierarchy of inhibitory activity of representative flavonoids on IL-4 synthesis by basophils
Luteolin, apigenin, fisetin > kaempferol, quercetin > myricetin.
3. In vivo effects in asthmatic animal models
Preventative and therapeutic beneficial effect of various flavonoids in several asthmatic models.
4. Epidemiological study
An increase of flavonoid intake is suggested to be beneficial for asthma.
5. Intervention study
Pycnogenol is efficacious for asthma.
Recent clinical trials have suggested that flavonoids can have a potent beneficial effect on allergic rhinitis, as well as asthma. Whether an appropriate intake of flavonoids can, in fact, constitute a dietary contribution to prevention and amelioration of asthma is, thus, an important issue for future studies. To this end, further well-designed, adequately powered trials are needed to determine the value of this dietary management component.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Bousquet, J.; Khaltaev, N. Global Surveillance, Prevention and Control of Chronic Respiratory Disease: A Comprehensive Approach; World Allergy Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2007. [Google Scholar]
  2. Adcock, I.M.; Caramori, G.; Chung, K.F. New targets for drug development in asthma. Lancet 2008, 372, 1073–1087. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Holgate, S.T. The epidemic of allergy and asthma. Nature 1999, 402, B2–B4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Eder, W.; Ege, M.J.; von Mutius, E. The asthma epidemic. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006, 355, 2226–2235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Nolte, H.; Backer, V.; Porsbjerg, C. Environmental factors as a cause for the increase in allergic disease. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2001, 87, 7–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Ho, S.M. Environmental epigenetics of asthma: An update. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2010, 126, 453–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Kauffmann, F.; Demenais, F. Gene-environment interactions in asthma and allergic diseases: Challenges and perspectives. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2012, 130, 1229–1240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Anto, J.M. Recent advances in the epidemiologic investigation of risk factors for asthma: A review of the 2011 literature. Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep. 2012, 12, 192–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. McKeever, T.M.; Britton, J. Diet and asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2004, 170, 725–729. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Devereux, G.; Seaton, A. Diet as a risk factor for atopy and asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2005, 115, 1109–1117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Raviv, S.; Smith, L.J. Diet and asthma. Curr. Opin. Pulm. Med. 2010, 16, 71–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Nurmatov, U.; Devereux, G.; Sheikh, A. Nutrients and foods for the primary prevention of asthma and allergy: Systemic review and meta-analysis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2011, 127, 724–733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Allan, K.; Devereux, G. Diet and asthma: Nutrition implications from prevention to treatment. J. Am. Diet Assoc. 2011, 111, 258–268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Hollman, P.C.; Katan, M.B. Health effects and bioavailability of dietary flavonols. Free Radic. Res. 1999, 31, S75–S80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Middleton, E.J.; Kandaswami, C.; Theoharides, T.C. The effects of plant flavonoids on mammalian cells: Implications for inflammation, heart disease, and cancer. Pharmacol. Rev. 2000, 52, 673–751. [Google Scholar]
  16. Manach, C.; Scalbert, A.; Morand, C.; Remesy, C.; Jimenez, L. Polyphenols: Food sources and bioavailability. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 79, 727–747. [Google Scholar]
  17. Williams, C.A.; Grayer, R.J. Anthocyanins and other flavonoids. Nat. Prod. Rep. 2004, 21, 539–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Chirumbolo, S. The role of quercetin, flavonols and flavones in modulating inflammatory cell function. Inflamm. Allergy Drug Targets 2010, 9, 263–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Visioli, F.; de la Lastra, C.A.; Andres-Lacueva, C.; Aviram, M.; Calhau, C.; Cassano, A.; D’Archivio, M.; Faria, A.; Fave, G.; Fogliano, V.; et al. Polyphenols and human health: A prospectus. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2011, 51, 524–546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Calderon-Montano, J.M.; Burgos-Moron, E.; Perez-Guerrero, C.; Lopez-Lazaro, M. A review on the dietary flavonoid kaempferol. Mini Rev. Med. Chem. 2011, 11, 298–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Russo, M.; Spagnuolo, C.; Tedesco, I.; Bilotto, S.; Russo, G.L. The flavonoid quercetin in disease prevention and therapy: Facts and fancies. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2012, 83, 6–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Magrone, T.; Jirillo, E. Influence of polyphenols on allergic immune reactions: Mechanisms of action. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2012, 71, 316–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Singh, A.; Holvoet, S.; Mercenier, A. Dietary polyphenols in the prevention and treatment of allergic diseases. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2011, 41, 1346–1359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Arts, I.C.; Hollman, P.C. Polyphenols and disease risk in epidemiologic studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005, 81, 317S–325S. [Google Scholar]
  25. Hooper, L.; Kroon, P.A.; Rimm, E.B.; Cohn, J.S.; Harvey, I.; le Cornu, K.A.; Ryder, J.J.; Hall, W.L.; Cassidy, A. Flavonoids, flavonoid-rich foods, and cardiovascular risk: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 88, 38–50. [Google Scholar]
  26. Sahiner, U.M.; Birden, E.; Erzurum, S.; Sackesen, C.; Kalayci, O. Oxidative stress in asthma. World Allergy Organ. J. 2011, 4, 151–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Birben, E.; Sahiner, U.M.; Sackesen, C.; Erzurum, S.; Kalayci, O. Oxidative stress and antioxidant defense. World Allergy Organ. J. 2012, 5, 9–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Auerbach, A.; Hernandez, M.L. The effect of environment oxidative stress on airway inflammation. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2012, 12, 133–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Nijveldt, R.J.; van Nood, E.; van Hoorn, D.E.C.; Boelens, P.G.; van Norren, K.; van Leeuwen, P.A.M. Flavonoids: A review of probable mechanisms of action and potential applications. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 74, 418–425. [Google Scholar]
  30. Korkina, L.G.; Afanas’ev, I.B. Antioxidant and chelating properties of flavonoids. Adv. Pharmacol. 1997, 38, 151–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Van Acker, S.A.; Tromp, M.N.; Haenen, G.R.; van der Vijgh, W.J.; Bast, A. Flavonoids as scavengers of nitric oxide radicals. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1995, 214, 755–759. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Chang, W.S.; Lee, Y.J.; Lu, F.J.; Chiang, H.C. Inhibitory effects of flavonoids on xanthine oxidase. Anticancer Res. 1993, 13, 2165–2170. [Google Scholar]
  33. Custovic, A.; Simpson, A. The role of inhalant allergens in allergic airways disease. J. Investig. Allergol. Clin. Immunol. 2012, 22, 393–401. [Google Scholar]
  34. Fewtrell, C.M.; Gomperts, B.D. Effect of flavone inhibitors on transport ATPases on histamine secretion from rat mast cells. Nature 1997, 265, 635–636. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Middleton, E.J.; Drzewiecki, G.; Krishnarao, D. Quercetin: An inhibitor of antigen-induced human basophil histamine release. J. Immunol. 1981, 127, 546–550. [Google Scholar]
  36. Middleton, E.J.; Kandaswami, C. Effects of flavonoids on immune and inflammatory cell functions. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1992, 43, 1167–1179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Cheong, H.; Ryu, S.Y.; Oak, M.H.; Cheon, S.H.; Yoo, G.S.; Kim, K.M. Studies of structure activity relationship of flavonoids for the anti-allergic actions. Arch. Pharm. Res. 1998, 21, 478–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Lee, T.P.; Matteliano, M.L.; Middleton, E.J. Effect of quercetin on human polymorphonuclear leukocyte lysosomal enzyme release and phospholipid metabolism. Life Sci. 1982, 31, 2765–2774. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Yoshimoto, T.; Furukawa, M.; Yamamoto, S.; Horie, T.; Watanabe-Kohno, S. Flavonoids: Potent inhibitors of arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1983, 116, 612–618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Kimata, M.; Shichijo, M.; Miura, T.; Serizawa, I.; Inagaki, N.; Nagai, H. Effects of luteolin, quercetin and baicalein on immunoglobulin E-mediated mediator release from human cultured mast cells. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2000, 30, 501–508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Kimata, M.; Inagaki, N.; Nagai, H. Effects of luteolin and other flavonoids on IgE-mediated allergic reactions. Plant Med. 2000, 66, 25–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Higa, S.; Hirano, T.; Kotani, M.; Matsumoto, M.; Fujita, A.; Suemura, M.; Kawase, I.; Tanaka, T. Fisetin, a flavonol, inhibits TH2-type cytokine production by activated human basophils. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2003, 111, 1299–1306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Hirano, T.; Higa, S.; Arimitsu, J.; Naka, T.; Shima, Y.; Ohshima, S.; Fujimoto, M.; Yamadori, T.; Kawase, I.; Tanaka, T. Flavonoids such as luteolin, fisetin and apigenin are inhibitors of interleukin-4 and interleukin-13 production by activated human basophils. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 2004, 134, 135–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Kawai, M.; Hirano, T.; Higa, S.; Arimitsu, J.; Maruta, M.; Kuwahara, Y.; Ohkawara, T.; Hagihara, K.; Yamadori, T.; Shima, Y.; et al. Flavonoids and related compounds as anti-allergic substances. Allergol. Int. 2007, 56, 113–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Matsuda, H.; Morikawa, T.; Ueda, K.; Managi, H.; Yoshikawa, M. Structural requirements of flavonoids for inhibition of antigen-induced degranulation, TNF-alpha and IL-4 production from RBL-2H3 cells. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2002, 10, 123–126. [Google Scholar]
  46. Hirano, T.; Arimitsu, J.; Higa, S.; Naka, T.; Ogata, A.; Shima, Y.; Fujimoto, M.; Yamadori, T.; Ohkawara, T.; Kuwabara, Y.; et al. Luteolin, a flavonoid, inhibits CD40 ligand expression by activated human basophils. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 2006, 140, 150–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Hirano, T.; Higa, S.; Arimitsu, J.; Naka, T.; Ogata, A.; Shima, Y.; Fujimoto, M.; Yamadori, T.; Ohkawara, T.; Kuwabara, Y.; et al. Luteolin, a flavonoid, inhibits AP-1 activation by basophils. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2006, 340, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Yanagihara, Y. Regulatory mechanisms of human IgE synthesis. Allelgol. Int. 2003, 52, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Cortes, J.R.; Perez-G, M.; Rivas, M.D.; Zamorano, J. Kaempferol inhibits IL-4-induced STAT6 activation by specifically targeting JAK3. J. Immunol. 2007, 179, 3881–3887. [Google Scholar]
  50. Connor, K.T.; Aylward, L.L. Human response to dioxin: aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) molecular structure, function, and dose-response data for enzyme induction indicate an impaired human AhR. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B Crit. Rev. 2006, 9, 147–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Amakura, Y.; Tsutsumi, T.; Sasaki, K.; Nakamura, M.; Yoshida, T.; Maitani, T. Influence of food polyphenols on aryl hydrocarbon receptor-signaling pathway estimated by in vitro bioassay. Phytochemistry 2008, 69, 3117–3130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Quintana, F.J.; Basso, A.S.; Iglesias, A.H.; Korn, T.; Farez, M.F.; Bettelli, E.; Caccamo, M.; Qukka, M.; Weiner, H.L. Control of T(reg) and T(H)17 cell differentiation by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Nature 2008, 453, 65–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Veldhoen, M.; Hirota, K.; Westendorf, A.M.; Buer, J.; Dumoutier, L.; Renauld, J.C.; Stockinger, B. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor links Th17-cell-mediated autoimmunity to environmental toxins. Nature 2008, 453, 106–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Kimura, A.; Naka, T.; Nohara, K.; Fujii-Kuriyama, Y.; Kishimoto, T. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor regulates Stat1 activation and participates in the development of Th17 cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 9721–9726. [Google Scholar]
  55. Marshall, N.B.; Kerkvliet, N.I. Dioxin and immune regulation: emerging role of aryl hydrocarbon receptor in the generation of regulatory T cells. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2010, 1183, 25–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Imanifooladi, A.A.; Yazdani, S.; Nourani, M.R. The role of nuclear factor-kappaB in inflammatory lung disease. Inflamm. Allergy Drug Targets 2010, 9, 197–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Serafini, M.; Peluso, I.; Raguzzini, A. Flavonoids as anti-inflammatory agents. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2010, 69, 273–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. La Vecchia, C.; Decarli, A.; Pagano, R. Vegetable consumption and risk of chronic disease. Epidemiology 1998, 9, 208–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Butland, B.K.; Strachan, D.P.; Anderson, H.R. Fresh fruit intake and asthma symptoms in young British adults: confounding or effect modification by smoking? Eur. Respir. J. 1999, 13, 744–750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Cook, D.G.; Carey, I.M.; Whincup, P.H.; Papacosta, O.; Chirico, S.; Bruckdorfer, K.R.; Walker, M. Effect of fresh fruit consumption on lung function and wheeze in children. Thorax 1997, 52, 628–633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Forastiere, F.; Pistelli, R.; Sestini, P.; Fortes, C.; Renzoni, E.; Rusconi, F.; Dell’Orco, V.; Ciccone, G.; Bisanti, L. Consumption of fresh fruit rich in vitamin C and wheezing symptoms in children. SIDRIA collaborative group, Italy (Italian Studies on Respiratory Disorders in Children and the Environment). Thorax 2000, 55, 283–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Farchi, S.; Forastiere, F.; Agabiti, N.; Corbo, G.; Pistelli, R.; Fortes, C.; Dell’Orco, V.; Perucci, C.A. Dietary factors associated with wheezing and allergic rhinitis in children. Eur. Respir. J. 2003, 22, 772–780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Antova, T.; Pattenden, S.; Nikiforov, B.; Leonardi, G.S.; Boeva, B.; Fletcher, T.; Rudnai, P.; Slachtova, H.; Tabak, C.; Zlotkowska, R.; et al. Nutrition and respiratory health in children in six central and eastern European countries. Thorax 2003, 58, 231–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Gilliland, F.D.; Berhane, K.T.; Li, Y.F.; Gauderman, W.J.; McConnell, R.; Peters, J. Children’s lung function and antioxidant vitamin, fruit, juice, and vegetable intake. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2003, 158, 576–584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Awasthi, S.; Kalra, E.; Roy, S.; Awasthi, S. Prevalence and risk factors of asthma and wheeze in school-going children in Lucknow, north India. Indian Pediatr. 2004, 41, 1205–1210. [Google Scholar]
  66. Wong, G.W.; Ko, F.W.; Hui, D.S.; Fok, T.F.; Carr, D.; von Mutius, E.; Zhong, N.S.; Chen, Y.Z.; Lai, C.K. Factors associated with difference in prevalence of asthma in children from three cities in China: multicentre epidemiological survey. BMJ 2004, 329, 486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Nja, F.; Nystad, W.; Lodrup Carlsen, K.C.; Hetlevik, O.; Carlsen, K.H. Effects of early intake of fruit or vegetables in relation to later asthma and allergic sensitization in school-age children. Acta Pediatr. 2005, 94, 147–154. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Tabak, C.; Wijga, A.H.; de Meer, G.; Janssen, N.A.; Brunekreef, B.; Smith, H.A. Diet and asthma in Dutch school children (ISSAC-2). Thorax 2006, 61, 1048–1053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Chatzi, L.; Apostolaki, G.; Bibakis, I.; Skypala, I.; Bibaki-Liakou, V.; Tzanakis, N.; Kogevinas, M.; Cullinan, P. Protective effect of fruits, vegetables and the Mediterranean diet on asthma and allergies among children in Crete. Thorax 2007, 62, 677–683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Chatzi, L.; Torrent, M.; Romieu, I.; Garcia-Esteban, R.; Ferrer, C.; Vioque, J.; Kogevinas, M.; Sunyer, J. Diet, wheeze, and atopy in school children in Menorca, Spain. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 2007, 18, 480–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Lewis, S.A.; Antoniak, M.; Venn, A.J.; Davies, L.; Goodwin, A.; Salfield, N.; Britton, J.; Fogarty, A.W. Secondhand smoke, dietary fruit intake, road traffic exposures, and the prevalence of asthma: A cross-sectional study in young children. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2005, 161, 406–411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Fitzsimon, N.; Fallon, U.; O’Mahony, D.; Loftus, B.G.; Bury, G.; Murphy, A.W.; Kelleher, C.C.; Lifeways Cross Generation Cohort Study Steering Group. Mother’s dietary patterns during pregnancy and risk of asthma symptoms in children at 3 years. Ir. Med. J. 2007, 100, 27–32. [Google Scholar]
  73. Miyake, Y.; Sasaki, S.; Tanaka, K.; Hirota, Y. Consumption of vegetables, fruit, and antioxidants during pregnancy and wheeze and eczema in infants. Allergy 2010, 65, 758–765. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Nurmatov, U.; Nwaru, B.I.; Devereux, G.; Sheikh, A. Confounding and effect modification in studies of diet and childhood asthma and allergies. Allergy 2012, 67, 1041–1059. [Google Scholar]
  75. Shaheen, S.O.; Sterne, J.A.; Thompson, R.L.; Songhurst, C.E.; Margetts, B.M.; Burney, P.G. Dietary antioxidants and asthma in adults: Population-based case-control study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2001, 164, 1823–1828. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Garcia, V.; Arts, I.C.; Sterne, J.A.; Thompson, R.L.; Shaheen, S.O. Dietary intake of flavonoids and asthma in adults. Eur. Respir. J. 2005, 26, 449–452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Knekt, P.; Kumpulainen, J.; Jarvinen, R.; Rissanen, H.; Heliovaara, M.; Reunanen, A.; Hakulinen, T.; Aromaa, A. Flavonoid intake and risk of chronic diseases. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 76, 560–568. [Google Scholar]
  78. Das, M.; Ram, A.; Ghosh, B. Luteolin alleviates bronchoconstriction and airway hyperreactivity in ovalbumin sensitized mice. Inflamm. Res. 2003, 52, 101–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Leemans, J.; Cambier, C.; Chandler, T.; Billen, F.; Clercx, C.; Kirschvink, N.; Gustin, P. Prophylactic effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and luteolin on airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in cats with experimentally-induced asthma. Vet. J. 2010, 184, 111–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Choi, J.R.; Lee, C.M.; Jung, I.D.; Lee, J.S.; Jeong, Y.I.; Chang, J.H.; Park, H.J.; Choi, I.W.; Kim, J.S.; Shin, Y.K.; et al. Apigenin protects ovalbumin-induced asthma through the regulation of GATA-3 gene. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2009, 9, 918–924. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Li, R.R.; Pang, L.L.; Du, Q.; Shi, Y.; Dai, W.J.; Yin, K.S. Apigenin inhibits allergen-induced airway inflammation and switches immune response in a murine model of asthma. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 2010, 32, 364–370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Wu, M.Y.; Hung, S.K.; Fu, S.L. Immunosuppressive effects of fisetin in ovalbumin-induced asthma through inhibition of NF-kB activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 10496–10504. [Google Scholar]
  83. Park, H.H.; Lee, S.; Oh, J.M.; Yoon, M.S.; Park, B.H.; Kim, J.W.; Song, H.; Kim, S.H. Anti-inflammatory activity of fisetin in human mast cells (HMC-1). Pharmacol. Res. 2007, 55, 31–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Goh, F.Y.; Upton, N.; Guan, S.; Cheng, C.; Shanmugam, M.K.; Sethi, G.; Leung, B.P.; Wong, W.S. Fisetin, a bioactive flavonol, attenuates allergic airway inflammation through negative regulation of NF-kB. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2012, 679, 109–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Rogerio, A.P.; Kanashiro, A.; Fontanari, C.; da Silva, E.V.; Lucisano-Valim, Y.M.; Soares, E.G.; Faccioli, L.H. Anti-inflammatory activity of quercetin and isoquercitrin in experimental murine allergic asthma. Inflamm. Res. 2007, 56, 402–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Park, H.J.; Lee, C.M.; Jung, I.D.; Lee, J.S.; Jeong, Y.I.; Chang, J.H.; Chun, S.H.; Kim, M.J.; Choi, I.W.; Ahn, S.C.; et al. Quercetin regulates Th1/Th2 balance in a murine model of asthma. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2009, 9, 261–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Jung, C.H.; Lee, J.Y.; Cho, C.H.; Kim, C.J. Anti-asthmatic action of quercetin and rutin in conscious guinea-pigs challenged with aerosolized ovalbumin. Arch. Pharm. Res. 2007, 30, 1599–1607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Gong, J.H.; Shin, D.; Han, S.Y.; Kim, J.L.; Kang, Y.H. Kaempferol suppresses eosinophil infiltration and airway inflammation in airway epithelial cells and in mice with allergic asthma. J. Nutr. 2012, 142, 47–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Song, M.Y.; Jeong, G.S.; Lee, H.S.; Kwon, K.S.; Lee, S.M.; Park, J.W.; Kim, Y.C.; Park, B.H. Sulfuretin attenuates allergic airway inflammation in mice. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2010, 400, 83–88. [Google Scholar]
  90. Choi, Y.H.; Jin, G.Y.; Guo, H.S.; Piao, H.M.; Li, L.C.; Li, G.Z.; Lin, Z.H.; Yan, G.H. Silibinin attenuates allergic airway inflammation in mice. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2012, 427, 450–455. [Google Scholar]
  91. Toledo, A.C.; Sakoda, C.P.; Perini, A.; Pinheiro, N.M.; Magalhaes, R.M.; Grecco, S.; Tiberio, I.F.; Camara, N.O.; Martins, M.A.; Lago, J.H.; et al. Flavonone treatment reverses airway inflammation and remodeling in an asthma murine model. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2013, 168, 1736–1749. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Wu, Y.Q.; Zhou, C.H.; Tao, J.; Li, S.N. Antagonistic effects of nobiletin, a polymethoxyflavonoid, on eosinophilic airway inflammation of asthmatic rats and relevant mechanisms. Life Sci. 2006, 78, 2689–2696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  93. Jiang, J.S.; Chien, H.C.; Chen, C.M.; Lin, C.N.; Ko, W.C. Potent suppressive effects of 3-O-methylquercetin 5,7,3′,4′-O-tetraacetate on ovalbumin-induced airway hyperresponsiveness. Planta Med. 2007, 73, 1156–1162. [Google Scholar]
  94. Kim, S.H.; Kim, B.K.; Lee, Y.C. Antiasthmatic effects of hesperdin, a potential Th2 cytokine antagonist, in a mouse model of allergic asthma. Mediators Inflamm. 2011, 2011, 485402. [Google Scholar]
  95. Huang, W.C.; Liou, C.J. Dietary acacetin reduces airway hyperresponsiveness and eosinophil infiltration by modulating eotaxin-1 and Th2 cytokines in a mouse model of asthma. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2012, 2012, 910520. [Google Scholar]
  96. Du, Q.; Gu, X.; Cai, J.; Huang, M.; Su, M. Chrysin attenuates allergic airway inflammation by modulating the transcription factors T-bet and GATA-3 in mice. Mol. Med. Report 2012, 6, 100–104. [Google Scholar]
  97. Gao, F.; Wei, D.; Bian, T.; Xie, P.; Zou, J.; Mu, H.; Zhang, B.; Zhou, X. Genistein attenuated allergic airway inflammation by modulating the transcription factors T-bet, GATA-3 and STAT-6 in a murine model of asthma. Pharmacology 2012, 89, 229–236. [Google Scholar]
  98. Jang, H.Y.; Ahn, K.S.; Park, M.J.; Kwon, O.K.; Lee, H.K.; Oh, S.R. Skullcapflavone II inhibits ovalbumin-induced airway inflammation in a mouse model of asthma. Int. Immunopharmacol. 2012, 12, 666–674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Funaguchi, N.; Ohno, Y.; La, B.L.; Asai, T.; Yuhgetsu, H.; Sawada, M.; Takemura, G.; Minatoguchi, S.; Fujiwara, T.; Fujiwara, H. Narirutin inhibits airway inflammation in an allergic mouse model. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2007, 34, 766–770. [Google Scholar]
  100. Hirota, R.; Nakamura, H.; Bhatti, S.A.; Ngatu, N.R.; Muzembo, B.A.; Dumavibhat, N.; Eitoku, M.; Sawamura, M.; Suganuma, N. Limonene inhalation reduces allergic airway inflammation in Dermatophagoides farinae-treated mice. Inhal. Toxicol. 2012, 24, 373–381. [Google Scholar]
  101. Tanaka, T.; Higa, S.; Hirano, T.; Kotani, M.; Matsumoto, M.; Fujita, A.; Kawase, I. Flavonoids as potential anti-allergic substances. Curr. Med. Chem. Antiinflamm. Antiallergy Agents 2003, 2, 57–65. [Google Scholar]
  102. Tanaka, T.; Hirano, T.; Kawai, M.; Arimitsu, J.; Hagihara, K.; Ogawa, M.; Kuwahara, Y.; Shima, Y.; Narazaki, M.; Ogata, A.; et al. Flavonoids, Natural Inhibitors of Basophil Activation. In Basophil Granulocytes; Vellis, P.K., Ed.; Nova Science Publishers, Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 2011; pp. 61–72. [Google Scholar]
  103. Tanaka, T. The effect of flavonoids on allergic diseases. Antiinflamm. Antiallergy Agents Med. Chem. 2011, 10, 374–381. [Google Scholar]
  104. Takano, H.; Osakabe, N.; Sanbongi, C.; Yanagisawa, R.; Inoue, K.; Yasuda, A.; Natsume, M.; Baba, S.; Ichiishi, E.; Yoshikawa, T. Extract of Perilla frutescens enriched for rosmarinic acid, a polyphenolic phytochemical, inhibits seasonal allergic rhinoconjunctivitis in humans. Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood) 2004, 229, 247–254. [Google Scholar]
  105. Kishi, K.; Saito, M.; Saito, T.; Kumemura, M.; Okamatsu, H.; Okita, M.; Takazawa, K. Clinical efficacy of apple polyphenol for treating cedar pollinosis. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2005, 69, 829–832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  106. Enomoto, T.; Nagasako-Akazome, Y.; Kanda, T.; Ikeda, M.; Dake, T. Clinical effects of apple polyphenols on persistent allergic rhinitis: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled parallel arm study. J. Investig. Allergol. Clin. Immunol. 2006, 16, 283–289. [Google Scholar]
  107. Segawa, S.; Takata, Y.; Wakita, Y.; Kaneko, T.; Kaneda, H.; Watari, J.; Enomoto, T.; Enomoto, T. Clinical effects of a hop water extract on Japanese cedar pollinosis during the pollen season: A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2007, 71, 1955–1962. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  108. Yoshimura, M.; Enomoto, T.; Dake, Y.; Okuno, Y.; Ikeda, H.; Cheng, L.; Obata, A. An evaluation of the clinical efficacy of tomato extract for perennial allergic rhinitis. Allergol. Int. 2007, 56, 225–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  109. Kawai, M.; Hirano, T.; Arimitsu, J.; Higa, S.; Kuwahara, Y.; Hagihara, K.; Shima, Y.; Narazaki, M.; Ogata, A.; Koyanagi, M.; et al. Enzymatically modified isoquercitrin, a flavonoid, on symptoms of Japanese cedar pollinosis: A randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 2009, 149, 359–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  110. Hirano, T.; Kawai, M.; Arimitsu, J.; Ogawa, M.; Kuwahara, Y.; Hagihara, K.; Shima, Y.; Narazaki, M.; Ogata, A.; Koyanagi, M.; et al. Preventative effect of a flavonoid, enzymatically modified isoquercitrin on ocular symptoms of Japanese cedar pollinosis. Allergol. Int. 2009, 58, 373–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  111. Bakhshaee, M.; Jabbari, F.; Hoseini, S.; Farid, R.; Sadeghian, M.H.; Rajati, M.; Mohamadpoor, A.H.; Movahhed, R.; Zamani, M.A. Effect of silymarin in the treatment of allergic rhinitis. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2011, 145, 904–909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  112. Wilson, D.; Evans, M.; Guthrie, N.; Sharma, P.; Baisley, J.; Schonlau, F.; Burki, C. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled exploratory study to evaluate the potential of pycnogenol for improving allergic rhinitis symptoms. Phytother. Res. 2010, 24, 1115–1119. [Google Scholar]
  113. Hosseini, S.; Pishnamazi, S.; Sadrzadeh, S.M.; Farid, F.; Farid, R.; Watson, R.R. Pycnogenol® in the management of asthma. J. Med. Food 2001, 4, 201–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  114. Lau, B.H.; Riesen, S.K.; Truong, K.P.; Lau, E.W.; Rohdewald, P.; Barreta, R.A. Pycnogenol as an adjunct in the management of childhood asthma. J. Asthma 2004, 41, 825–832. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  115. Belcaro, G.; Luzzi, R.; Cesinaro di Rocco, P.; Cesarone, M.R.; Dugall, M.; Feragalli, B.; Errichi, B.M.; Ippolito, E.; Grossi, M.G.; Hosoi, M.; et al. Pycnogenol improvements in asthma management. Panminerva Med. 2011, 53, 57–64. [Google Scholar]
  116. Schoonees, A.; Visser, J.; Musekiwa, A.; Volmink, J. Pycnogenol® (extract of French maritime pine bark) for the treatment of chronic disorders® for the treatment of chronic disorders. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2012, 4, CD008294. [Google Scholar]
  117. Bhagwat, S.; Haytowitz, D.B.; Holden, J.M. USDA Database for the Flavonoid Content of Selective Foods. Release 3; U.S. Department of Agriculture: Beltsville, MD, USA, 2011.
  118. Black, L.; Kiely, M.; Kroon, P.; Plumb, J.; Gry, J. Development of EuroFIR-BASIS—A composition and biological effects database for plant-based bioactive compounds. Nutr. Bull. 2008, 33, 58–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. Neveu, V.; Perez-Jimenez, J.; Vos, F.; Crespy, V.; du Chaffaut, L.; Mennen, L.; Knox, C.; Eisner, R.; Cruz, J.; Wishart, D.; et al. Phenol-Explorer: An online comprehensive database on polyphenol contents in foods. Database (Oxford) 2010, 2010, ap024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  120. Rothwell, J.A.; Urpi-Sarda, M.; Boto-Ordonez, M.; Knox, C.; Llorach, R.; Eisner, R.; Cruz, J.; Neveu, V.; Wishart, D.; Manach, C.; et al. Phenol-Explorer 2.0: A major update of the Phenol-Explorer database integrating data on polyphenol metabolism and pharmacokinetics in humans and experimental animals. Database (Oxford) 2012, 2012, as031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Perez-Jimenez, J.; Fezeu, L.; Touvier, M.; Arnault, N.; Manach, C.; Hercberg, S.; Galan, P.; Scalbert, A. Dietary intake of 337 polyphenols in French adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 93, 1220–1228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  122. Zamora-Ros, R.; Knaze, V.; Lujan-Barroso, L.; Romieu, I.; Scalbert, A.; Slimani, N.; Hjartaker, A.; Engeset, D.; Skeie, G.; Overvad, K.; et al. Differences in dietary intakes, food sources and determinants of total flavonoids between Mediterranean and non-Mediterranean countries participating in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study. Br. J. Nutr. 2013, 109, 1498–1507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  123. Zamora-Ros, R.; Agudo, A.; Lujan-Barroso, L.; Romieu, I.; Ferrari, P.; Knaze, V.; Bueno-de-Mesquita, H.B.; Leenders, M.; Travis, R.C.; Navarro, C.; et al. Dietary flavonoid and lignan intake and gastric adenocarcinoma risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012, 96, 1398–1408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Tanaka, T.; Takahashi, R. Flavonoids and Asthma. Nutrients 2013, 5, 2128-2143. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5062128

AMA Style

Tanaka T, Takahashi R. Flavonoids and Asthma. Nutrients. 2013; 5(6):2128-2143. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5062128

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tanaka, Toshio, and Ryo Takahashi. 2013. "Flavonoids and Asthma" Nutrients 5, no. 6: 2128-2143. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu5062128

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop