Exposure to Drinking Water Trihalomethanes and Their Association with Low Birth Weight and Small for Gestational Age in Genetically Susceptible Women
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Participants
2.2. Genotyping
2.3. Exposure Assessment
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Results
Characteristic Risk factors | Total N (%) | Control N (%) | Low birth weight N (%) | Small for gestation age N (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Maternal age | |||||
<20 years | 17 (2.5) | 10 (1.8) | 1 (1.7) | 7 (7.3) a | |
20–29 years | 402 (58.9) | 330 (60.1) | 29 (49.2) | 51 (53.1) | |
≥30 years | 263 (38.6) | 209 (38.1) | 29 (49.2) | 38 (39.6) | |
Marital status | |||||
Married | 532 (78.0) | 439 (80.0) | 40 (67.8) a | 66 (68.8) a | |
Not married | 150 (22.0) | 110 (20.0) | 19 (32.2) | 30 (31.2) | |
Maternal smoking | |||||
Non-smoker | 611 (89.6) | 491 (89.4) | 53 (89.8) | 86 (89.6) | |
Smoker (<1 cig/day) | 71 (10.4) | 58 (10.6) | 6 (10.2) | 10 (10.4) | |
Paternal smoking | |||||
No | 327 (48.3) | 264 (48.4) | 26 (44.8) | 44 (46.3) | |
Yes (<1 cig/day) | 350 (51.7) | 282 (51.6) | 32 (55.2) | 51 (53.7) | |
Alcohol consumption | |||||
No | 640 (93.8) | 516 (94.0) | 55 (93.2) | 88 (91.7) | |
Yes (<1 alc unit/day) | 42 (6.2) | 33 (6.0) | 4 (6.8) | 8 (8.3) | |
Blood pressure | |||||
<140/80 mm/Hg | 581 (85.2) | 470 (85.6) | 49 (83.1) | 78 (81.3) | |
≥140 or ≥90 mm/Hg | 101 (14.8) | 79 (14.4) | 10 (16.9) | 18 (18.7) | |
Ethnic group | |||||
Lithuanian | 660 (96.8) | 531 (96.7) | 57 (96.6) | 92 (95.8) | |
Other | 22 (3.2) | 18 (3.3) | 2 (3.4) | 4 (4.2) | |
Maternal education | |||||
primary school | 58 (8.5) | 43 (7.8) | 9 (15.2) | 11 (11.4) | |
secondary school | 296 (43.4) | 242 (44.1) | 23 (39.0) | 38 (39.6) | |
university degree | 328 (48.1) | 264 (48.1) | 27 (45.8) | 47 (49.0) | |
Parity | |||||
No child | 319 (46.8) | 249 (45.4) | 26 (44.1) | 54 (56.2) a | |
≥ child | 363 (53.2) | 300 (54.6) | 33 (55.9) | 42 (43.7) | |
Body mass index | |||||
<25 Underweight and normal | 238 (35.0) | 169 (30.8) | 33 (55.9) a | 50 (52.1) a | |
25–30 Overweight | 308 (45.1) | 256 (46.6) | 20 (33.9) | 37 (38.5) | |
>30 Obesity | 136 (19.9) | 124 (22.6) | 6 (10.2) | 9 (9.4) | |
Hazard work exposure b | |||||
No | 608 (89.1) | 489 (89.1) | 51 (83.6) | 87 (90.6) | |
Yes | 74 (10.9) | 60 (10.9) | 10 (16.4) | 9 (9.4) | |
Maternal disease c | |||||
No | 461 (67.6) | 364 (66.3) | 37 (62.7) | 76 (79.2) a | |
Yes | 221 (32.4) | 185 (33.7) | 22 (37.3) | 20 (20.8) | |
Premature baby | |||||
No | 654 (95.9) | 508 (92.5) | 53 (89.8)a | 93 (96.9) | |
Yes | 28 (4.1) | 41 (7.5) | 6 (10.2) | 3 (3.1) | |
THM exposure area | |||||
Low level | 330 (48.4) | 279 (50.8) | 26 (44.1) | 44 (45.8) | |
High level | 352 (51.6) | 270 (49.2) | 33 (55.9) | 52 (54.2) | |
Infant gender | |||||
Male | 364 (53.4) | 297 (54.1) | 27 (45.8) | 49 (51.0) | |
Female | 318 (46.6) | 252 (45.9) | 32 (54.2) | 47 (49.0) | |
Socioeconomic status d | |||||
Low | 255 (37.4) | 202 (36.8) | 20 (33.9) | 39 (40.6) | |
Medium | 321 (47.1) | 262 (47.7) | 29 (49.2) | 42 (43.8) | |
High | 106 (15.5) | 85 (15.5) | 10 (16.9) | 15 (15.6) | |
GSTT1 | |||||
GSTT1–1 | 570 (83.6) | 459 (83.6) | 47 (79.7) | 81 (84.4) | |
GSTT1–0 | 112 (16.4) | 90 (16.4) | 12 (20.3) | 15 (15.6) | |
GSTM1 | |||||
GSTM1–1 | 350 (51.3) | 286 (52.1) | 25 (42.4) | 49 (51.0) | |
GSTM1–0 | 332 (48.7) | 263 (47.9) | 34 (57.6) | 47 (49.0) |
THM exposure a | Low birth weight | Small for gestation age | |
---|---|---|---|
OR b (95% CI) | OR c (95% CI) | ||
TTHM d | |||
Entire pregnancy | 1.27 (0.59–2.74) | 1.32 (0.83–2.10) | |
First trimester | 1.03 (0.48–2.23) | 1.20 (0.75–1.91) | |
Second trimester | 1.15 (0.53–2.47) | 1.17 (0.74–1.86) | |
Third trimester | 1.33 (0.62–2.87) | 1.33 (0.84–2.13) | |
Chloroform | |||
Entire pregnancy | 1.24 (0.57–2.68) | 1.31 (0.82–20.9) | |
First trimester | 1.15 (0.54–2.48) | 1.25 (0.78–1.99) | |
Second trimester | 1.29 (0.60–2.76) | 1.23 (0.77–1.95) | |
Third trimester | 1.45 (0.67–3.13) | 1.31 (0.82–2.08) | |
BDCM d | |||
Entire pregnancy | 1.26 (0.58–2.72) | 1.31 (0.82–2.09) | |
First trimester | 1.28 (0.59–2.76) | 1.30 (0.82–2.08) | |
Second trimester | 1.26 (0.58–2.73) | 1.25 (0.79–2.00) | |
Third trimester | 1.27 (0.59–2.76) | 1.31 (0.82–2.09) | |
DBCM d | |||
Entire pregnancy | 3.00 (0.34–27.0) | 1.35 (0.80–2.29) | |
First trimester | 1.76 (0.66–4.69) | 2.19 (1.20–3.99) | |
Second trimester | 1.46 (0.62–3.42) | 1.40 (0.82–2.39) | |
Third trimester | 1.54 (0.65–3.63) | 1.68 (0.97–2.89) |
THM exposure a | GSTT1 genotype | N(%) b | Entire pregnancy OR (95% CI) | First trimester OR (95% CI) | Second trimester OR (95% CI) | Third trimester OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LBW c | ||||||
TTHM d | GSTT1–1 | 24 (8.5) | 1.19 (0.50–2.82) | 0.97 (0.41–2.28) | 1.10 (0.47–2.59) | 1.23 (0.52–2.90) |
GSTT1–0 | 7.40 (0.13–409) | 7.48 (0.13–441) | 7.48 (0.13–441) | 7.30 (0.14–391) | ||
5 (12.2) | ||||||
Interaction | 1.24 (0.18–8.40) | 1.42 (0.21–9.59) | 1.26 (0.18–8.55) | 1.19 (0.17–8.09) | ||
CH d | GSTT1–1 | 24 (8.4) | 1.19 (0.50–2.82) | 1.12 (0.48–2.63) | 1.25 (0.53–2.92) | 1.35 (0.57–3.20) |
GSTT1–0 | 7.48 (0.13–441) | 7.48 (0.13–441) | 7.48 (0.13–441) | 7.30 (0.14–391) | ||
5 (11.9) | ||||||
Interaction | 1.14 (0.17–7.67) | 1.25 (0.19–8.45) | 1.21 (0.18–8.14) | 1.18 (0.17–8.00) | ||
BDCM d | GSTT1–1 | 24 (8.7) | 1.34 (0.57–3.16) | 1.37 (0.58–3.23) | 1.34 (0.57–3.16) | 1.36 (0.58–3.22) |
GSTT1–0 | 0.89 (0.05–15.7) | 0.89 (0.05–15.7) | 0.89 (0.05–15.7) | 0.89 (0.05–15.9) | ||
4 (10.0) | ||||||
Interaction | 0.62 (0.09–4.23) | 0.61 (0.09–4.17) | 0.63 (0.09–4.30) | 0.61 (0.09–4.17) | ||
DBCM d | GSTT1–1 | 27 (14.8) | 1.16 (0.10–13.1) | 1.22 (0.38–3.91) | 1.16 (0.43–3.13) | 1.41 (0.54–3.70) |
GSTT1–0 | 56.1 (0.00–2×107) | 8.79 (0.21–377) | 1.20 (0.06–25.3) | 0.54 (0.02–12.51) | ||
5 (14.7) | ||||||
Interaction | 0.40 (0.06–2.77) | 0.95 (0.14–6.68) | 0.84 (0.12–5.96) | 0.91 (0.13–6.26) | ||
SGA e | ||||||
TTHM d | GSTT1–1 | 43 (15.1) | 1.30 (0.78–2.17) | 1.17 (0.70–1.94) | 1.23 (0.68–1.88) | 1.22 (0.73–2.03) |
GSTT1–0 | 1.04 (0.29–3.74) | 0.99 (0.28–3.58) | 0.99 (0.28–3.58) | 1.51 (0.43–5.29) | ||
5 (12.2) | ||||||
Interaction | 0.82 (0.22–3.00) | 0.90 (0.25–3.28) | 0.91 (0.25–3.34) | 1.22 (0.34–4.33) | ||
CH d | GSTT1–1 | 43 (15.1) | 1.30 (0.78–2.17) | 1.23 (0.74–2.06) | 1.18 (0.71–1.98) | 1.18 (0.71–1.97) |
GSTT1–0 | 0.99 (0.28–3.58) | 0.99 (0.88–3.58) | 1.15 (0.32–4.11) | 1.75 (0.50–6.10) | ||
5 (11.9) | ||||||
Interaction | 0.80 (0.22–2.92) | 0.86 (0.24–3.14) | 0.94 (0.26–3.44) | 1.35 (0.38–4.81) | ||
BDCM d | GSTT1–1 | 42 (15.2) | 1.28 (0.77–2.14) | 1.30 (0.78–2.18) | 1.28 (0.77–2.14) | 1.29 (0.77–2.15) |
GSTT1–0 | 1.03 (0.29–3.69) | 1.04 (0.30–3.67) | 0.72 (0.19–2.71) | 1.03 (0.29–3.69) | ||
5 (12.5) | ||||||
Interaction | 0.83 (0.23–3.04) | 0.75 (0.21–2.79) | 0.61 (0.16–2.35) | 0.82 (0.23–3.02) | ||
DBCM d | GSTT1–1 | 38 (20.9) | 1.29 (0.71–2.34) | 1.85 (0.93–3.67) | 1.20 (0.65–2.20) | 1.89 (1.01–3.54) |
GSTT1–0 | 1.43 (0.43–4.76) | 3.79 (0.89–16.1) | 2.36 (0.66–8.46) | 1.04 (0.31–3.53) | ||
7 (20.6) | ||||||
Interaction | 1.35 (0.38–4.80) | 1.61 (0.45–5.82) | 2.09 (0.58–7.53) | 0.98 (0.28–3.43) |
THM exposure a | GSTM1 genotype | N(%) b | Entire pregnancy OR (95% CI) | First trimester OR (95% CI) | Second trimester OR (95% CI) | Third trimester OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LBW c | ||||||
TTHM d | GSTM1–1 | 8 (4.6) | 0.34 (0.09–1.22) | 0.32 (0.09–1.14) | 0.34 (0.09–1.23) | 0.34 (0.09–1.24) |
GSTM1–0 | 4.23 (1.25–14.32) e | 2.88 (0.90–9.22) | 3.21 (1.01–10.2) e | 4.37 (1.36–14.08) e | ||
21 (13.9) | ||||||
Interaction | 13.37 (2.36–75.8) e | 9.29 (1.71–50.35) e | 10.28 (1.88–56.23) e | 13.35 (2.41–73.87) e | ||
CH d | GSTM1–1 | 8 (4.6) | 0.34 (0.09–1.22) | 0.43 (0.13–1.42) | 0.48 (0.14–1.59) | 0.35 (0.10–1.28) |
GSTM1–0 | 4.08 (1.20–13.9) e | 2.81 (0.87–9.03) | 3.08 (0.96–9.87) | 5.06 (1.50–17.05) e | ||
21 (13.9) | ||||||
Interaction | 12.88 (2.27–73.2) e | 6.70 (1.29–34.73) e | 7.04 (1.34–37.0) e | 15.86 (2.75–91.40) e | ||
BDCM d | GSTM1–1 | 9 (5.5) | 0.55 (0.16–1.89) | 0.57 (0.17–1.95) | 0.56 (0.16–1.90) | 0.55 (0.16–1.89) |
GSTM1–0 | 2.65 (0.85–8.23) | 2.63 (0.85–8.14) | 2.65 (0.85–8.23) | 2.74 (0.88–8.51) | ||
19 (12.6) | ||||||
Interaction | 5.16 (1.01–26.52) e | 4.89 (0.96–25.0) | 5.11 (1.00–26.24) e | 5.29 (1.03–27.15) e | ||
DBCM d | GSTM1–1 | 12 (10.1) | 0.94 (0.07–12.14) | 2.52 (0.54–11.7) | 0.74 (0.19–2.90) | 1.36 (0.36–5.11) |
GSTM1–0 | 11.97 (0.42–337) | 1.47 (0.41–5.34) | 2.13 (0.67–6.81) | 1.78 (0.55–5.75) | ||
20 (20.6) | 13.75 (0.23–83.3) | 0.88 (0.19–4.10) | 3.05 (0.63–14.87) | 1.95 (0.40–9.56) | ||
Interaction | ||||||
SGA f | ||||||
TTHM d | GSTM1–1 | 23 (13.2) | 0.84 (0.42–1.68) | 0.80 (0.40–1.61) | 0.78 (0.39–1.57) | 0.86 (0.43–1.74) |
GSTM1–0 | 1.80 (0.92–3.55) | 1.60 (0.82–3.15) | 1.54 (0.79–3.02) | 1.81 (0.92–3.56) | ||
25 (16.6) | ||||||
Interaction | 2.26 (0.85–5.95) | 2.18 (0.82–5.75) | 2.07 (0.79–5.46) | 2.19 (0.83–5.79) | ||
CH d | GSTM1–1 | 23 (13.2) | 0.84 (0.42–1.68) | 0.89 (0.45–1.78) | 0.90 (0.45–1.80) | 0.88 (0.44–1.78) |
GSTM1–0 | 1.78 (0.90–3.50) | 1.59 (0.81–3.12) | 1.52 (0.78–2.97) | 1.74 (0.89–3.41) | ||
25 (16.3) | ||||||
Interaction | 2.12 (0.81–5.54) | 1.87 (0.72–4.88) | 1.71 (0.66–4.87) | 1.98 (0.76–5.20) | ||
BDCM d | GSTM1–1 | 24 (14.5) | 1.05 (0.52–2.10) | 1.00 (0.50–2.01) | 0.96 (0.48–1.93) | 1.05 (0.52–2.10) |
GSTM1–0 | 1.42 (0.72–2.79) | 1.50 (0.77–2.95) | 1.42 (0.72–2.79) | 1.43 (0.73–2.81) | ||
23 (15.2) | ||||||
Interaction | 1.42 (0.55–3.71) | 1.60 (0.61–4.16) | 1.55 (0.59–4.03) | 1.42 (0.55–3.71) | ||
DBCM d | GSTM1–1 | 26 (21.8) | 1.57 (0.72–3.40) | 2.33 (0.91–5.95) | 1.44 (0.67–3.12) | 1.63 (0.73–3.64) |
GSTM1–0 | 1.09 (0.51–2.32) | 1.74 (0.77–3.97) | 1.23 (0.57–2.65) | 1.55 (0.72–3.36) | ||
19 (19.6) | ||||||
Interaction | 0.61 (0.23–1.61) | 0.43 (0.16–1.14) | 0.58 (0.22–1.53) | 0.87 (0.33–2.26) |
3.2. Discussion
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflict of Interest
References
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Danileviciute, A.; Grazuleviciene, R.; Vencloviene, J.; Paulauskas, A.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M.J. Exposure to Drinking Water Trihalomethanes and Their Association with Low Birth Weight and Small for Gestational Age in Genetically Susceptible Women. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9, 4470-4485. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9124470
Danileviciute A, Grazuleviciene R, Vencloviene J, Paulauskas A, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ. Exposure to Drinking Water Trihalomethanes and Their Association with Low Birth Weight and Small for Gestational Age in Genetically Susceptible Women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2012; 9(12):4470-4485. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9124470
Chicago/Turabian StyleDanileviciute, Asta, Regina Grazuleviciene, Jone Vencloviene, Algimantas Paulauskas, and Mark J. Nieuwenhuijsen. 2012. "Exposure to Drinking Water Trihalomethanes and Their Association with Low Birth Weight and Small for Gestational Age in Genetically Susceptible Women" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 9, no. 12: 4470-4485. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9124470