Peer Pressure, Psychological Distress and the Urge to Smoke
Abstract
:Background:
Methods:
Results:
Conclusions:
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Collection
2.2. Measures
2.3. Statistical Methods
3. Results
4. Discussion and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
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Total (n = 1,220) | Male smokers (n = 1,104) | Female Smokers (n = 116) | Monthly Amount Smoked (packs) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total smokers | Current smokers | Male smokers | Current male smokers | |||||||||||
N | % | N | % | N | % | Mean | Std | Mean | Std | Mean | Std | Mean | Std | |
Total | 1,220 | 100.00 | 1,104 | 100.00 | 116 | 100.00 | 19.19 | 17.39 | 19.86 | 17.74 | ||||
Current smokers | 927 | 75.98 | 836 | 75.72 | 91 | 78.45 | 25.28 | 15.63 | 26.26 | 15.74 | ||||
Age (years) | ||||||||||||||
18–24 | 122 | 10.00 | 99 | 8.97 | 23 | 19.83 | 17.29 | 11.43 | 19.35 | 10.30 | 18.47 | 11.60 | 20.09 | 10.66 |
25–34 | 204 | 16.72 | 174 | 15.76 | 30 | 25.86 | 22.38 | 15.22 | 24.82 | 14.01 | 23.73 | 15.30 | 25.66 | 14.26 |
35–44 | 290 | 23.77 | 259 | 23.46 | 31 | 26.72 | 21.75 | 17.97 | 26.30 | 16.45 | 23.14 | 18.18 | 27.90 | 16.29 |
45–54 | 245 | 20.08 | 227 | 20.56 | 18 | 15.52 | 21.78 | 19.60 | 28.61 | 17.58 | 22.25 | 20.00 | 29.45 | 17.80 |
55+ | 321 | 26.31 | 309 | 27.99 | 12 | 10.34 | 14.02 | 17.23 | 24.79 | 16.04 | 14.12 | 17.27 | 25.28 | 15.86 |
Missing | 38 | 36 | 2 | |||||||||||
Gender | ||||||||||||||
Woman | 116 | 9.51 | 12.83 | 11.94 | 16.36 | 11.12 | ||||||||
Man | 1,104 | 90.49 | 19.86 | 17.74 | 26.26 | 15.74 | ||||||||
Education | ||||||||||||||
Elementary school or no education | 305 | 25.00 | 280 | 25.36 | 25 | 21.55 | 19.58 | 19.24 | 27.34 | 17.45 | 19.90 | 19.63 | 28.37 | 17.56 |
Junior high school | 237 | 19.43 | 214 | 19.38 | 23 | 19.83 | 21.69 | 17.80 | 27.09 | 15.78 | 22.44 | 18.24 | 28.28 | 15.93 |
Senior high school | 553 | 45.33 | 492 | 44.57 | 61 | 52.59 | 19.55 | 16.37 | 24.53 | 14.62 | 20.55 | 16.62 | 25.55 | 14.68 |
Undergraduate or graduate school | 122 | 10.00 | 115 | 10.42 | 7 | 6.03 | 11.65 | 14.04 | 18.94 | 13.49 | 11.95 | 14.28 | 19.36 | 13.66 |
Missing | 3 | 3 | ||||||||||||
Employment Status | ||||||||||||||
No | 387 | 31.72 | 329 | 29.80 | 58 | 50.00 | 15.57 | 17.96 | 24.47 | 17.00 | 16.20 | 18.73 | 26.36 | 17.40 |
Yes | 831 | 68.11 | 773 | 70.02 | 58 | 50.00 | 20.88 | 16.87 | 25.57 | 15.11 | 21.42 | 17.08 | 26.22 | 15.21 |
Missing | 2 | 2 | ||||||||||||
Social motive for the first-time smoking | ||||||||||||||
No | 957 | 78.44 | 852 | 77.17 | 105 | 90.52 | 19.30 | 16.83 | 24.95 | 15.01 | 20.05 | 17.20 | 26.07 | 15.09 |
Yes | 263 | 21.56 | 252 | 22.83 | 11 | 9.48 | 18.77 | 19.31 | 26.62 | 17.87 | 19.20 | 19.47 | 26.96 | 17.96 |
Mood motive for the first-time smoking | ||||||||||||||
No | 1077 | 88.28 | 993 | 89.95 | 84 | 72.41 | 19.26 | 17.69 | 25.68 | 15.89 | 19.75 | 18.01 | 26.44 | 16.03 |
Yes | 143 | 11.72 | 111 | 10.05 | 32 | 27.59 | 18.63 | 14.94 | 22.57 | 13.45 | 20.80 | 15.18 | 24.83 | 13.20 |
Cue response | ||||||||||||||
CR_Peer>0 | 1183 | 96.97 | 1073 | 97.19 | 110 | 94.83 | 19.58 | 17.42 | 25.61 | 15.57 | 20.26 | 17.75 | 26.56 | 15.67 |
CR_Psych>0 | 1116 | 91.48 | 1006 | 91.12 | 110 | 94.83 | 19.89 | 17.40 | 25.80 | 15.49 | 20.66 | 17.72 | 26.88 | 15.54 |
Exposure to cigarette advertisement | ||||||||||||||
No | 566 | 46.39 | 532 | 48.19 | 34 | 29.31 | 19.61 | 18.03 | 26.73 | 15.90 | 19.92 | 18.26 | 27.31 | 15.97 |
Yes | 654 | 53.61 | 572 | 51.81 | 82 | 70.69 | 18.82 | 16.82 | 24.11 | 15.32 | 19.79 | 17.26 | 25.35 | 15.51 |
Exposure to second hand smoke in the workplace | ||||||||||||||
No | 668 | 54.75 | 620 | 56.16 | 48 | 41.38 | 16.65 | 17.62 | 24.16 | 16.39 | 17.13 | 17.87 | 24.91 | 16.44 |
Yes | 515 | 42.21 | 483 | 43.75 | 32 | 27.59 | 23.04 | 16.69 | 27.12 | 14.73 | 23.40 | 16.94 | 27.67 | 14.87 |
Missing | 37 | 1 | 36 | 31.03 | ||||||||||
Exposure to second hand smoke at home | ||||||||||||||
No | 732 | 60.00 | 697 | 63.13 | 35 | 30.17 | 17.80 | 17.47 | 25.40 | 15.57 | 18.14 | 17.62 | 25.77 | 15.64 |
Yes | 488 | 40.00 | 407 | 36.87 | 81 | 69.83 | 21.26 | 17.07 | 25.13 | 15.72 | 22.78 | 17.57 | 26.96 | 15.89 |
Cue Response on Peer (CR_Peer) | Cue Response on Psychological Stimulus (CR_Psych) | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total smokers | Male smokers | Total smokers | Male smokers | |||||||||||||
Response (CR_Peer > 0) | CR_Peer | Response (CR_Peer > 0) | CR_Peer | Response (CR_Psych > 0) | CR_Psych | Response (CR_Psych > 0) | CR_Psych | |||||||||
N | % | mean | std | N | % | mean | std | N | % | mean | std | N | % | mean | std | |
Total | 1,183 | 96.97 | 6.25 | 2.64 | 1,073 | 97.19 | 6.35 | 2.62 | 1,116 | 91.48 | 5.75 | 3.34 | 1,006 | 91.12 | 5.57 | 3.30 |
Age (years) | ||||||||||||||||
18–24 | 120 | 98.36 | 6.36 | 1.93 | 97 | 97.98 | 6.36 | 1.94 | 119 | 97.54 | 6.99 | 3.05 | 96 | 96.97 | 6.74 | 3.06 |
25–34 | 198 | 97.06 | 6.23 | 2.52 | 169 | 97.13 | 6.39 | 2.43 | 193 | 94.61 | 6.89 | 3.37 | 164 | 94.25 | 6.57 | 3.29 |
35–44 | 282 | 97.24 | 6.01 | 2.57 | 253 | 97.68 | 6.20 | 2.48 | 268 | 92.41 | 5.88 | 3.22 | 237 | 91.51 | 5.71 | 3.19 |
45–54 | 236 | 96.33 | 6.45 | 2.78 | 220 | 96.92 | 6.53 | 2.77 | 222 | 90.61 | 5.65 | 3.34 | 207 | 91.19 | 5.62 | 3.32 |
55+ | 311 | 96.88 | 6.27 | 2.90 | 299 | 96.76 | 6.31 | 2.90 | 281 | 87.54 | 4.59 | 3.16 | 270 | 87.38 | 4.53 | 3.14 |
Missing | 36 | 35 | 33 | 32 | ||||||||||||
Gender | ||||||||||||||||
Woman | 110 | 94.83 | 5.31 | 2.69 | 110 | 94.83 | 7.48 | 3.33 | ||||||||
Man | 1,073 | 97.19 | 6.35 | 2.62 | 1,006 | 91.12 | 5.57 | 3.30 | ||||||||
Education | ||||||||||||||||
Elementary school | ||||||||||||||||
or no education | 297 | 97.38 | 6.21 | 2.76 | 274 | 97.86 | 6.35 | 2.72 | 274 | 89.84 | 4.70 | 3.13 | 253 | 90.36 | 4.64 | 3.10 |
Junior high school | 230 | 97.05 | 6.14 | 2.62 | 208 | 97.20 | 6.16 | 2.62 | 212 | 89.45 | 5.45 | 3.31 | 189 | 88.32 | 5.16 | 3.22 |
Senior high school | 536 | 96.93 | 6.34 | 2.57 | 478 | 97.15 | 6.48 | 2.53 | 522 | 94.39 | 6.49 | 3.28 | 463 | 94.11 | 6.26 | 3.25 |
Undergraduate or graduate school | 117 | 95.90 | 6.13 | 2.72 | 110 | 95.65 | 6.15 | 2.75 | 105 | 86.07 | 5.58 | 3.46 | 98 | 85.22 | 5.57 | 3.49 |
Missing | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | ||||||||||||
Employment Status | ||||||||||||||||
No | 375 | 96.90 | 6.24 | 2.84 | 320 | 97.26 | 6.43 | 2.83 | 355 | 91.73 | 5.38 | 3.31 | 302 | 91.79 | 5.08 | 3.20 |
Yes | 806 | 96.99 | 6.25 | 2.54 | 751 | 97.15 | 6.31 | 2.52 | 759 | 91.34 | 5.91 | 3.35 | 702 | 90.82 | 5.77 | 3.31 |
Missing | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | ||||||||||||
Social motive for the first-time smoking | ||||||||||||||||
No | 928 | 96.97 | 6.22 | 2.63 | 828 | 97.18 | 6.34 | 2.61 | 882 | 92.16 | 5.95 | 3.34 | 782 | 91.78 | 5.75 | 3.30 |
Yes | 255 | 96.96 | 6.37 | 2.69 | 245 | 97.22 | 6.39 | 2.66 | 234 | 88.97 | 5.02 | 3.28 | 224 | 88.89 | 4.94 | 3.21 |
Mood motive for the first-time smoking | ||||||||||||||||
No | 1,043 | 96.84 | 6.29 | 2.65 | 964 | 97.08 | 6.37 | 2.63 | 978 | 90.81 | 5.54 | 3.31 | 900 | 90.63 | 5.42 | 3.29 |
Yes | 140 | 97.90 | 5.92 | 2.56 | 109 | 98.20 | 6.16 | 2.47 | 138 | 96.5 | 7.27 | 3.20 | 106 | 95.5 | 6.85 | 3.03 |
Exposure to cigarette advertisement | ||||||||||||||||
No | 548 | 96.82 | 6.15 | 2.79 | 516 | 96.99 | 6.21 | 2.78 | 509 | 89.93 | 5.27 | 3.28 | 479 | 90.04 | 5.19 | 3.24 |
Yes | 635 | 97.09 | 6.34 | 2.50 | 557 | 97.38 | 6.48 | 2.45 | 607 | 92.81 | 6.16 | 3.35 | 527 | 92.13 | 5.92 | 3.31 |
Exposure to second hand smoke in the workplace | ||||||||||||||||
No | 644 | 96.41 | 6.12 | 2.74 | 598 | 96.45 | 6.18 | 2.75 | 596 | 89.22 | 5.22 | 3.31 | 550 | 88.71 | 5.07 | 3.28 |
Yes | 504 | 97.86 | 6.50 | 2.44 | 474 | 98.14 | 6.55 | 2.42 | 486 | 94.37 | 6.32 | 3.26 | 455 | 94.2 | 6.20 | 3.22 |
Missing | 35 | 1 | 34 | 1 | ||||||||||||
Exposure to second hand smoke at home | ||||||||||||||||
No | 712 | 97.27 | 6.29 | 2.66 | 679 | 97.42 | 6.34 | 2.65 | 664 | 90.71 | 5.60 | 3.33 | 632 | 90.67 | 5.53 | 3.30 |
Yes | 471 | 96.52 | 6.19 | 2.61 | 394 | 96.81 | 6.37 | 2.56 | 452 | 92.62 | 5.96 | 3.35 | 374 | 91.89 | 5.63 | 3.29 |
Single-equations | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Smoking Amount | CR_peer | CR_Psych | |||||||
Coef | 95% CI | Coef | 95% CI | Coef | 95% CI | ||||
Cons | −16.37 | −21.08 | −11.66 | 6.11 | 5.14 | 7.08 | 7.65 | 6.63 | 8.67 |
Cue-Sensitivity | |||||||||
CR_peer | 1.06 | 0.74 | 1.38 | ||||||
CR_Psych | 0.44 | 0.17 | 0.70 | ||||||
Smoking Amount | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.06 | |||
Age (years) (Ref: 18–24) | |||||||||
25–34 | 4.64 | 1.72 | 7.56 | −0.23 | −0.82 | 0.36 | −0.15 | −0.86 | 0.55 |
35–44 | 5.67 | 2.86 | 8.49 | −0.51 | −1.09 | 0.07 | −0.98 | −1.66 | −0.30 |
45–54 | 5.88 | 2.90 | 8.86 | −0.10 | −0.72 | 0.52 | −1.02 | −1.74 | −0.30 |
55+ | 2.06 | −1.24 | 5.35 | −0.33 | −0.99 | 0.34 | −1.79 | −2.57 | −1.01 |
Gender (Ref: woman) | |||||||||
man | 7.56 | 4.88 | 10.23 | 0.50 | −0.10 | 1.10 | −1.62 | −2.26 | −0.98 |
Education (Ref: Elementary school or no education) | |||||||||
Junior high school | −1.05 | −3.6 | 1.50 | −0.11 | −0.62 | 0.40 | 0.16 | −0.45 | 0.77 |
Senior high school | −3.05 | −5.42 | −0.67 | 0.15 | −0.32 | 0.63 | 0.96 | 0.4 | 1.53 |
Undergraduate or graduate school | −6.27 | −9.39 | −3.14 | 0.09 | – | 0.71 | 0.32 | −0.43 | 1.07 |
Employment Status (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Yes | −0.7 | −2.61 | 1.21 | −0.52 | −0.97 | −0.07 | −0.17 | −0.63 | 0.29 |
Exposure to cigarette advertisement (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Yes | −1.02 | −2.65 | 0.60 | 0.37 | 0.04 | 0.69 | |||
Exposure to second hand smoke at home (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Yes | −0.14 | −0.47 | 0.18 | ||||||
Exposure to second hand smoke at workplace (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Yes | 0.49 | 0.12 | 0.85 | ||||||
Social motive for the first-time smoking (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Yes | 0.19 | −0.17 | 0.55 | ||||||
Mood motive for the first-time smoking (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Yes | 1.25 | 0.68 | 1.82 | ||||||
Smoking status (Ref: former smoking) | |||||||||
Current smoking | 24.93 | 23.06 | 26.80 | −1.37 | −1.84 | −0.91 | −1.19 | −1.75 | −0.63 |
R2 | 0.4631 | 0.0891 | 0.1493 | ||||||
Hausman Test | |||||||||
χ2 value | 1.47 | −5.24 | 12.91 | ||||||
P-value | 1 | – | 0.4551 |
Single-equations | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Smoking Amount | CR_peer | CR_Psych | |||||||
Coef | 95% CI | Coef | 95% CI | Coef | 95% CI | ||||
Cons | −10.71 | −15.53 | −5.88 | 6.65 | 5.77 | 7.52 | 6.37 | 5.36 | 7.38 |
Cue-Sensitivity | |||||||||
CR_peer | 0.97 | 0.63 | 1.32 | ||||||
CR_Psych | 0.53 | 0.25 | 0.82 | ||||||
Smoking Amount | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.06 | |||
Age (years) (Ref:18–24) | |||||||||
25–34 | 5.25 | 1.97 | 8.53 | −0.14 | −0.78 | 0.50 | −0.34 | −1.12 | 0.44 |
35–44 | 7.22 | 4.09 | 10.35 | −0.35 | −0.98 | 0.27 | −1.12 | −1.86 | −0.38 |
45–54 | 7.17 | 3.89 | 10.44 | −0.01 | −0.66 | 0.64 | −1.09 | −1.87 | −0.32 |
55+ | 3.42 | −0.15 | 6.99 | −0.27 | −0.97 | 0.43 | −2.03 | −2.86 | −1.20 |
Education (Ref: Elementary school or no education) | |||||||||
Junior high school | −0.76 | −3.48 | 1.96 | −0.23 | −0.76 | 0.30 | −0.13 | −0.77 | 0.51 |
Senior high school | −3.07 | −5.60 | −0.55 | 0.14 | −0.35 | 0.63 | 0.80 | 0.21 | 1.39 |
Undergraduate or graduate school | −6.35 | −9.64 | −3.06 | −0.03 | −0.67 | 0.62 | 0.30 | −0.47 | 1.07 |
Employment Status (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Yes | −1.15 | −3.26 | 0.96 | −0.55 | −1.02 | −0.08 | −0.18 | −0.68 | 0.31 |
Exposure to cigarette advertisement (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Yes | −0.83 | −2.56 | 0.89 | 0.37 | 0.04 | 0.70 | |||
Exposure to second hand smoke at home (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Yes | −0.09 | −0.43 | 0.24 | ||||||
Exposure to second hand smoke at workplace (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Yes | 0.50 | 0.12 | 0.88 | ||||||
Social motive for the first-time smoking (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Yes | 0.12 | −0.25 | 0.49 | ||||||
Mood motive for the first-time smoking (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Yes | 1.18 | 0.54 | 1.81 | ||||||
Smoking status (Ref: former smoking) | |||||||||
Current smoking | 26.14 | 24.13 | 28.15 | −1.38 | −1.87 | −0.9 | −1.3 | −1.89 | −0.7 |
R2 | 0.4658 | 0.0763 | 0.1252 | ||||||
Hausman Test | |||||||||
χ2 value | −940.21 | −848.21 | −938.04 | ||||||
P-value | – | – | – |
© 2009 by the authors; licensee Molecular Diversity Preservation International, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
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Tsai, Y.-W.; Wen, Y.-W.; Tsai, C.-R.; Tsai, T.-I. Peer Pressure, Psychological Distress and the Urge to Smoke. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2009, 6, 1799-1811. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph6061799
Tsai Y-W, Wen Y-W, Tsai C-R, Tsai T-I. Peer Pressure, Psychological Distress and the Urge to Smoke. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2009; 6(6):1799-1811. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph6061799
Chicago/Turabian StyleTsai, Yi-Wen, Yu-Wen Wen, Chia-Rung Tsai, and Tzu-I Tsai. 2009. "Peer Pressure, Psychological Distress and the Urge to Smoke" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 6, no. 6: 1799-1811. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph6061799