Dietary Intake of Cadmium, Lead and Mercury and Its Association with Bone Health in Healthy Premenopausal Women
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Sample Characteristics Regarding Heavy Metal Dietary Intake
3.2. Bone Density and Heavy Metal Dietary Intake
3.3. Correlation Study
3.4. Dietary Heavy Metal Exposure and Major Food Sources in the Entire Sample
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable (Units) | Low (<25.29 μg/day) | High (>25.29 μg/day) | p-Value | p-Value * |
---|---|---|---|---|
Median (IQR) (n = 79) | Median (IQR) (n = 79) | |||
Age (years) | 40 (37–43) | 41 (37–44) | 0.682 | 0.852 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 24.80 (22.80–27.50) | 23.62 (22.33–26.38) | 0.068 | 0.215 |
Dietary vitamin D (μg/day) | 3.92 (2.17–6.14) | 7.25 (4.84–11.65) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Dietary calcium (mg/day) | 982 (675–1239) | 1025 (790–1278) | 0.339 | 0.738 |
Dietary iron (mg/day) | 11.73 (10.25–15.75) | 14.24 (11.62–17.01) | 0.007 | 0.237 |
Dietary zinc (mg/day) | 9.24 (7.24–10.71) | 10.05 (7.94–12.49) | 0.051 | 0.959 |
Dietary energy (kcal/day) | 1969.2 (1629.2–2415.0) | 2260 (1858.1–2626.5) | 0.003 | N/A |
Dietary iodine (μg/day) | 330.5 (98–431) | 335 (36–436) | 0.865 | 0.156 |
Dietary magnesium (mg/day) | 227.8 (178.5–276.6) | 259 (203.3–341.1) | 0.010 | 0.196 |
Dietary copper (mg/day) | 0.806 (0.564–1.031) | 0.936 (0.769–1.397) | 0.002 | 0.558 |
Dietary selenium (μg/day) | 72.4 (53.2–90.7) | 95.35 (68–119.9) | <0.001 | 0.005 |
Dietary cadmium/body weight (μg/kg b.w./w) | 1.92 (1.56–2.31) | 3.83 (3.26–4.89) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Dietary cadmium (μg/day) | 18.62 (14.37–20.75) | 34.99 (30.40–41.96) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Variable (Units) | Low (<43.85 μg/day) | High (>43,85 μg/day) | p-Value | p-Value * |
---|---|---|---|---|
Median (IQR) (n = 79) | Median (IQR) (n = 79) | |||
Age (years) | 41 (37–44) | 41 (37–43) | 0.635 | 0.553 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 25.06 (22.97–27.57) | 23.98 (22.30–26.38) | 0.033 | 0.234 |
Dietary vitamin D (μg/day) | 438 (257–811) | 621 (411–99) | 0.012 | 0.435 |
Dietary calcium (mg/day) | 961 (634–1209) | 1025 (873–1327) | 0.018 | 0.546 |
Dietary iron (mg/day) | 11.02 (8.62–14.49) | 15.16 (12.42–17.57) | <0.001 | 0.015 |
Dietary zinc (mg/day) | 8.7 (6.67–10.37) | 10.63 (8.92–13.07) | <0.001 | 0.007 |
Dietary energy (kcal/day) | 1858.1 (1500.4–2323.6) | 2358.3 (1995.1–2621.4) | <0.001 | N/A |
Dietary iodine (μg/day) | 322 (18–441) | 339 (205–434) | 0.065 | 0.844 |
Dietary magnesium (mg/day) | 214.5 (159.5–286.2) | 269.4 (222.8–338.3) | <0.001 | 0.023 |
Dietary copper (mg/day) | 0.724 (0.501–0.993) | 0.945 (0.82–1409) | <0.001 | 0.281 |
Dietary selenium (μg/day) | 63.1 (49.8–79.6) | 96 (75.7–125) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Dietary lead/body weight (μg/kg b.w./w) | 3.67 (3.2–4.36) | 6.05 (5.19–6.97) | <0.001 | 0.004 |
Dietary lead (μg/day) | 35.09 (29.8–40.03) | 51.45 (47.59–58.37) | <0.001 | 0.006 |
Variable (Units) | Low (<9.55 μg/day) | High (>9.55 μg/day) | p-Value | p-Value * |
---|---|---|---|---|
Median (IQR) (n = 80) | Median (IQR) (n = 78) | |||
Age (years) | 40.5 (37–43) | 41 (37–44) | 0.739 | 0.848 |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 24.51 (22.88–27.41) | 23.7 (22.33–26.84) | 0.138 | 0.370 |
Dietary vitamin D (μg/day) | 3.93 (2.28–6.16) | 7.35 (4.89–11.65) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Dietary calcium (mg/day) | 996 (677–1224) | 995.5 (728–1285) | 0.517 | 0.661 |
Dietary iron (mg/day) | 11.93 (10.37–15.82) | 14.17 (11.52–17.01) | 0.015 | 0.188 |
Dietary zinc (mg/day) | 9.08 (7.29–10.74) | 10.04 (7.94–12.45) | 0.063 | 0.583 |
Dietary energy (kcal/day) | 2008.25 (1643.25–2390.65) | 2256.65 (1855.8–2621.4) | 0.008 | N/A |
Dietary iodine (μg/day) | 331 (98–431) | 334 (32–436) | 0.832 | 0.205 |
Dietary magnesium (mg/day) | 225.3 (179.15–279.5) | 260.45 (203.3–341.1) | 0.012 | 0.169 |
Dietary copper (mg/day) | 0.81 (0.57–0.98) | 0.94 (0.77–1.4) | 0.001 | 0.384 |
Dietary selenium (μg/day) | 72.1 (52.25–90.45) | 95.8 (68.2–118.9) | <0.001 | 0.001 |
Dietary mercury/body weight (μg/kg b.w./w) | 0.71 (0.53–0.87) | 5.18 (4.24–6.62) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Dietary mercury (μg/day) | 7.19 (4.96–7.72) | 47.78 (39.99–57.82) | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Variable (Units) | Low (<25.29 μg/day) | High (>25.29 μg/day) | p-Value | p-Value * |
---|---|---|---|---|
Median (IQR) (n = 79) | Median (IQR) (n = 79) | |||
Quantitative bone ultrasound | ||||
Amplitude-dependent speed-of-sound (Ad-SoS) (m/s) | 2120 (2092–2145) | 2133 (2092–2166) | 0.224 | 0.329 |
Ultrasound bone profiler index (UBPI) | 0.78 (0.69–0.85) | 0.78 (0.71–0.85) | 0.933 | 0.861 |
Bone transmission time (BTT) (μs) | 1.60 (1.52–1.65) | 1.60 (1.58–1.72) | 0.028 | 0.037 |
Bone mineral density (BMD) (g/cm2) | ||||
BMD Femoral neck | 0.891 (0.839–0.992) | 0.885 (0.815–0.966) | 0.372 | 0.325 |
BMD Femoral trochanter | 0.685 (0.636–0.755) | 0.677 (0.617–0.771) | 0.777 | 0.714 |
BMD Ward’s triangle | 0.709 (0.624–0.807) | 0.687 (0.614–0.782) | 0.568 | 0.746 |
BMD L2 | 1.109 (1.016–1.184) | 1.097 (1.012–1.180) | 0.631 | 0.851 |
BMD L3 | 1.101 (1.015–1.189) | 1.101 (1.016–1.182) | 0.790 | 0.853 |
BMD L4 | 1.060 (0.976–1.151) | 1.037 (0.972–1.128) | 0.453 | 0.624 |
BMD lumbar spine | 1.105 (1.009–1.173) | 1.079 (0.997–1.157) | 0.601 | 0.673 |
Volumetric BMD (mg/cm3) | ||||
Total density | 363.6 (323.4–394.5) | 348.9 (327.9–385.8) | 0.479 | 0.623 |
Trabecular density | 180.1 (160.3–210.1) | 174.4 (152.8–197.8) | 0.305 | 0.551 |
Cortical density | 503 (449.4–558.3) | 494.8 (454.4–545.4) | 0.832 | 0.887 |
Bone morphometry (mm2) | ||||
Total area | 283.4 (265.6–311.9) | 294.1 (270.1–324.1) | 0.120 | 0.252 |
Trabecular area | 127.4 (119.4–142.4) | 132.3 (121.5–145.5) | 0.185 | 0.485 |
Cortical area | 155.9 (146.2–171.6) | 161.9 (148.6–178.6) | 0.157 | 0.350 |
Variable (Units) | Low (<43.85 μg/day) | High (>43,85 μg/day) | p-Value | p-Value * |
---|---|---|---|---|
Median (IQR) (n = 79) | Median (IQR) (n = 79) | |||
Quantitative bone ultrasound | ||||
Ad-SoS (m/s) | 2126 (2093–2157) | 2130 (2090–2162) | 0.801 | 0.886 |
Ultrasound bone profiler index (UBPI) | 0.77(0.71–0.85) | 0.78 (0.71–0.84) | 0.985 | 0.998 |
Bone transmission time (BTT) (μs) | 1.60 (1.55–1.7) | 1.60 (1.52–1.68) | 0.568 | 0.433 |
Bone mineral density (g/cm2) | ||||
BMD Femoral neck | 0.886 (0.814–0.991) | 0.892 (0.826–0.971) | 0.865 | 0.993 |
BMD Femoral trochanter | 0.689 (0.630–0.754) | 0.679 (0.611–0.775) | 0.981 | 0.988 |
BMD Ward‘s triangle | 0.692 (0.602–0.810) | 0.697 (0.626–0.785) | 0.716 | 0.780 |
BMD L2 | 1.100 (1.016–1.157) | 1.107 (1.006–1.194) | 0.436 | 0.328 |
BMD L3 | 1.095 (1.008–1.161) | 1.107 (1.031–1.199) | 0.157 | 0.120 |
BMD L4 | 1.054 (0.983–1.135) | 1.046 (0.966–1.138) | 0.793 | 0.999 |
BMD lumbar spine | 1.088 (1.009–1.142) | 1.089 (0.997–1.191) | 0.565 | 0.476 |
Volumetric BMD (mg/cm3) | ||||
Total density | 349.7 (321.7–389.1) | 358.3 (327.9–389.4) | 0.381 | 0.497 |
Trabecular density | 176.8 (155.4–203.4) | 178.2 (156.4–210.1) | 0.551 | 0.575 |
Cortical density | 494.3 (450–556.1) | 501.1 (460–547.8) | 0.505 | 0.671 |
Bone morphometry (mm2) | ||||
Total area | 293.8 (275.3–327.6) | 287.5 (261.4–319.2) | 0.092 | 0.050 |
Trabecular area | 131.9 (123.6–147.2) | 129.1 (117.3–143.4) | 0.091 | 0.057 |
Cortical area | 161.9 (151.8–180.3) | 158.4 (144.1–174.4) | 0.078 | 0.030 |
Variable (Units) | Low (<9.55 μg/day) | High (>9.55 μg/day) | p-Value | p-Value * |
---|---|---|---|---|
Median (IQR) (n = 80) | Median (IQR) (n = 78) | |||
Quantitative bone ultrasound | ||||
Ad-SoS (m/s) | 2126 (2092.5–2145) | 2131 (2092–2166) | 0.360 | 0.361 |
Ultrasound bone profiler index (UBPI) | 0.78 (0.69–0.84) | 0.78 (0.71–0.85) | 0.882 | 0.794 |
Bone transmission time (BTT) (μs) | 1.60 (1.52–1.65) | 1.60 (1.55–1.72) | 0.057 | 0.059 |
Bone mineral density (g/cm2) | ||||
BMD Femoral neck | 0.893 (0.834–1.005) | 0.889 (0.824–0.969) | 0.390 | 0.323 |
BMD Femoral trochanter | 0.680 (0.633–0.753) | 0.684 (0.611–0.775) | 0.951 | 0.863 |
BMD Ward’s triangle | 0.706 (0.624–0.806) | 0.687 (0.616–0.785) | 0.595 | 0.665 |
BMD L2 | 1.109 (1.017–1.187) | 1.096 (1.006–1.169) | 0.536 | 0.683 |
BMD L3 | 1.101 (1.020–1.188) | 1.101 (1.014–1.183) | 0.736 | 0.785 |
BMD L4 | 1.059 (0.980–1.148) | 1.038 (0.972–1.128) | 0.397 | 0.568 |
BMD lumbar spine | 1.097 (1.012–1.175) | 1.076 (0.997–1.153) | 0.522 | 0.586 |
Volumetric BMD (mg/cm3) | ||||
Total density | 359.3 (318.85–388.95) | 350.25 (328.-389.4) | 0.832 | 0.551 |
Trabecular density | 178.3 (159.35–208.7) | 174.55 (153.4–197.8) | 0.461 | 0.795 |
Cortical density | 499.65 (449.15–555.8) | 496.2 (460–553.2) | 0.675 | 0.506 |
Bone morphometry (mm2) | ||||
Total area | 283.4 (265.95–311.05) | 294.3 (267.3–324.1) | 0.189 | 0.345 |
Trabecular area | 127.4 (119.55–141.35) | 132.3 (120.1–145.5) | 0.278 | 0.618 |
Cortical area | 155.9 (146.4–171.25) | 162.05 (147.2–178.6) | 0.237 | 0.467 |
Variable (UNITS) | Dietary Intake (μg/day) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Cadmium | Lead | Mercury | |
Dietary vitamin D (μg/day) | r = 0.38; p < 0.001 | r = 0.11; p = 0.162 | r = 0.39; p < 0.001 |
Dietary calcium (mg/day) | r = −0.01; p = 0.819 | r = 0.16; p = 0.045 | r = −0.04; p = 0.545 |
Dietary iron (mg/day) | r = 0.12; p = 0.131 | r = 0.33; p < 0.001 | r = 0.09; p = 0.236 |
Dietary zinc (mg/day) | r = 0.09; p = 0.232 | r = 0.41; p < 0.001 | r = 0.07; p = 0.378 |
Dietary iodine (μg/day) | r = −0.06; p = 0.408 | r = −0.00; p = 0.952 | r = −0.07; p = 0.336 |
Dietary magnesium (mg/day) | r = 0.18; p = 0.022 | r = 0.34; p < 0.001 | r = 0.14; p = 0.063 |
Dietary copper (mg/day) | r = 0.14; p = 0.081 | r = 0.218; p = 0.006 | r = 0.11; p = 0.137 |
Dietary selenium (μg/day) | r = 0.28; p < 0.001 | r = 0.28; p < 0.001 | r = 0.28; p < 0.001 |
Variable (Units) | Dietary Intake (μg/day) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Cadmium | Lead | Mercury | |
Quantitative bone ultrasound | |||
Ad-SoS (m/s) | r = 0.02 (p = 0.72) | r = 0.06 (p = 0.45) | r = 0.02 (p = 0.74) |
Ultrasound bone profiler index (UBPI) | r = −0.00 (p = 0.95) | r = −0.05 (p = 0.49) | r = −0.00 (p = 0.92) |
Bone transmission time (BTT) (μs) | r = 0.10 (p = 0.18) | r = 0.07 (p = 0.38) | r = 0.10 (p = 0.19) |
Bone mineral density (g/cm2) | |||
BMD Femoral neck | r = −0.02 (p = 0.78) | r = −0.02 (p = 0.73) | r = −0.04 (p = 0.65) |
BMD Femoral trochanter | r = 0.03 (p = 0.66) | r = −0.01 (p = 0.86) | r = 0.03 (p = 0.65) |
BMD Ward's triangle | r = 0.01 (p = 0.85) | r = 0.01 (p = 0.86) | r = −0.00 (p = 0.98) |
BMD L2 | r = −0.00 (p = 0.95) | r = 0.05 (p = 0.51) | r = −0.01 (p = 0.83) |
BMD L3 | r = −0.01 (p = 0.81) | r = 0.08 (p = 0.30) | r = −0.03 (p = 0.63) |
BMD L4 | r = −0.01 (p = 0.89) | r = 0.02 (p = 0.78) | r = −0.02 (p = 0.72) |
BMD lumbar spine | r = −0.01 (p = 0.89) | r = 0.06 (p = 0.46) | r = −0.03 (p = 0.75) |
Volumetric BMD (mg/cm3) | |||
Total density | r = 0.06 (p = 0.39) | r = 0.09 (p = 0.26) | r = 0.06 (p = 0.48) |
Trabecular density | r = −0.02 (p = 0.73) | r = −0.00 (p = 0.99) | r = −0.04 (p = 0.58) |
Cortical density | r = 0.08 (p = 0.33) | r = 0.10 (p = 0.21) | r = 0.07 (p = 0.38) |
Bone morphometry (mm2) | |||
Total area | r = 0.02 (p = 0.84) | r = −0.11 (p = 0.18) | r = 0.028 (p = 0.72) |
Trabecular area | r = −0.02 (p = 0.76) | r = −0.12 (p = 0.14) | r = −0.01 (p = 0.85) |
Cortical area | r = −0.02 (p = 0.82) | r = −0.12 (p = 0.12) | r = −0.00 (p = 0.94) |
Bone health (T-score) | |||
Spine T-score | r = −0.04 (p = 0.96) | r = 0.051 (p = 0.526) | r = −0.19 (p = 0.81) |
Hip T-score | r = −0.03 (p = 0.71) | r = −0.03 (p = 0.69) | r = −0.04 (p = 0.58) |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Lavado-García, J.M.; Puerto-Parejo, L.M.; Roncero-Martín, R.; Moran, J.M.; Pedrera-Zamorano, J.D.; Aliaga, I.J.; Leal-Hernández, O.; Canal-Macias, M.L. Dietary Intake of Cadmium, Lead and Mercury and Its Association with Bone Health in Healthy Premenopausal Women. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 1437. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14121437
Lavado-García JM, Puerto-Parejo LM, Roncero-Martín R, Moran JM, Pedrera-Zamorano JD, Aliaga IJ, Leal-Hernández O, Canal-Macias ML. Dietary Intake of Cadmium, Lead and Mercury and Its Association with Bone Health in Healthy Premenopausal Women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14(12):1437. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14121437
Chicago/Turabian StyleLavado-García, Jesus M., Luis M. Puerto-Parejo, Raul Roncero-Martín, Jose M. Moran, Juan D. Pedrera-Zamorano, Ignacio J. Aliaga, Olga Leal-Hernández, and Maria L. Canal-Macias. 2017. "Dietary Intake of Cadmium, Lead and Mercury and Its Association with Bone Health in Healthy Premenopausal Women" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14, no. 12: 1437. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14121437