Hypertension and the Fat-Soluble Vitamins A, D and E
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Study Population
2.3. Patient Data
2.4. Epidemiological Analysis
Gender | Age (years) | Vitamin A (µg) | Vitamin D (µg) | Vitamin E (µg) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Women | 40–49 | 800 | 5 | 8 |
50–59 | 800 | 5 | 8 | |
60–69 | 800 | 10 | 8 | |
≥70 | 700 | 15 | 10 | |
Men | 40–49 | 1000 | 5 | 10 |
50–59 | 1000 | 5 | 10 | |
60–69 | 1000 | 10 | 10 | |
≥70 | 900 | 15 | 12 |
3. Results
3.1. General Characteristics and Anthropometrical Variables
Variable | Non-AHT (n = 429; 63.6%) | AHT (n = 246; 36.4%) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women (n = 221; 51.5%) | Men (n = 208; 48.5%) | Women (n = 113; 45.9%) | Men (n = 133; 54.1%) | ||||||
N | %/Mean ± SD | N | %/Mean ± SD | N | %/Mean ± SD | N | %/Mean ± SD | ||
Age | 40–59 | 149 | 67.42 * | 128 | 61.54 * | 27 | 23.89 * | 47 | 35.34 * |
60–69 | 22 | 9.95 | 21 | 10.10 | 19 | 16.81 | 13 | 9.77 | |
>70 | 50 | 22.62 * | 59 | 28.37 * | 67 | 59.29 * | 73 | 54.89* | |
Weight (kg) | 62.21 ± 8.84 * | 201 | 76.44 ± 10.78 | 111 | 66.82 ± 12.96 * | 129 | 77.09 ± 12.01 | ||
BMI | 25.36 ± 3.58 * | 208 | 26.75 ± 3.22 | 112 | 28.66 ± 4.99 * | 133 | 27.38 ± 3.57 | ||
Waist/hip | 0.81 ± 0.09 | 206 | 0.94 ± 0.07 * | 110 | 0.84 ± 0.10 | 130 | 0.96 ± 0.06 * | ||
Medication | |||||||||
Anti-HTA | |||||||||
No medication | 99.5 | 207 | 99.5 | 108 | 95.6 | 128 | 96.2 | ||
On medication | 0.5 | 1 | 0.5 | 5 | 4.4 | 5 | 3.8 | ||
IECAs | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 80 | 4 | 80 | ||
Diuretics | 100 | 1 | 100 | 1 | 20 | 1 | 20 | ||
Anti-DM | |||||||||
No medication | 99.1 | 199 | 95.7 | 103 | 91.2 | 126 | 94.7 | ||
On medication | 0.9 | 9 | 0.3 | 10 | 8.8 | 7 | 5.3 | ||
Oral antidiabetics | 50 | 4 | 44.4 | 4 | 40 | 3 | 42.9 | ||
Insulin | 50 | 5 | 55.6 | 6 | 60 | 4 | 57.1 | ||
Anti-hypolipidemics | |||||||||
No medication | 97.3 | 196 | 94.2 | 104 | 92.0 | 123 | 92.5 | ||
On medication | 2.7 | 12 | 5.8 | 9 | 8.0 | 10 | 7.5 |
3.2. Blood Pressure, Biochemical Parameters and Vitamins Intake
Variable | Non-AHT (n = 429; 63.6%) | AHT (n = 246; 36.4%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women (n = 221; 51.5%) | Men (n = 208; 48.5%) | Women (n = 113; 45.9%) | Men (n = 133; 54.1%) | |||||
N | %/Mean ± SD | N | %/Mean ± SD | N | %/Mean ± SD | N | %/Mean ± SD | |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 218 | 118.64 ± 12.11 * | 207 | 123.51 ± 10.44 * | 112 | 152.00 ± 15.42 * | 132 | 150.61 ± 15.90 * |
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 218 | 75.70 ± 7.66 * | 207 | 76.41 ± 6.86 * | 112 | 87.30 ± 9.40 * | 132 | 87.13 ± 10.05 * |
Triglycerides (mg/dL) | 221 | 142.04 ± 67.31 * | 208 | 212.02 ± 107.89 | 113 | 165.64 ± 85.30 * | 133 | 228.25 ± 152.83 |
HDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 221 | 59.11 ± 13.58 | 208 | 45.79 ± 11.88 | 113 | 56.25 ± 14.48 | 133 | 47.64 ± 12.24 |
LDL cholesterol (mg/dL) | 221 | 122.94 ± 32.58 | 208 | 121.79 ± 33.06 | 113 | 128.98 ± 33.79 | 133 | 117.68 ± 35.03 |
Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 221 | 210.47 ± 37.35 | 208 | 209.98 ± 34.66 | 113 | 218.36 ± 36.01 | 133 | 210.97 ± 41.73 |
Fasting glucose (mg/dL) | 221 | 88.77 ± 12.17 * | 208 | 92.30 ± 18.3 3* | 113 | 94.03 ± 14.40 * | 133 | 98.62 ± 24.94 * |
Diabetes mellitus | 3 | 1.4 * | 11 | 5.3 * | 10 | 8.8 * | 15 | 11.3 * |
Kidney damage | 5 | 2.3 * | 4 | 1.9 * | 10 | 9.0 * | 13 | 9.8 * |
Metabolic syndrome | 25 | 11.3 * | 41 | 19.7 * | 40 | 35.4 * | 53 | 39.8 * |
Hypertriglyceridemia | 108 | 50.5 | 108 | 55.1 | 51 | 49.0 | 58 | 47.2 |
Hypercholesterolemia | 29 | 13.2 * | 38 | 18.3 | 27 | 23.9 * | 22 | 16.5 |
Obesity | 35 | 17.0 * | 49 | 24.3 | 46 | 41.4 * | 35 | 26.7 |
Overweight | 102 | 49.5 * | 151 | 74.8 | 85 | 76.6 * | 99 | 75.6 |
Total energy (kcal/day) | 221 | 4311.22 ± 1546.59 | 208 | 4566.67 ± 1623.22 | 113 | 4650.59 ± 1470.62 | 133 | 4564.06 ± 1680.60 |
VITAMINS: Vit. A (µg/day) | 221 | 1650.03 ± 908.85 * | 208 | 1661.76 ± 899.54 | 113 | 1977.00 ± 1016.82 * | 133 | 1533.96 ± 870.43 |
Vit. D (µg/day) | 221 | 7.70 ± 9.76 | 208 | 8.68 ± 9.29 | 113 | 7.96 ± 9.93 | 133 | 8.27 ± 9.57 |
Vit. E (µg/day) | 221 | 17.91 ± 8.22 | 208 | 19.27 ± 8.30 | 113 | 18.44 ± 7.48 | 133 | 19.12 ± 8.19 |
Variable | Non-AHT (n = 429; 63.6%) | AHT (n = 246; 36.4%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vitamin A | Vitamin D | Vitamin E | Vitamin A | Vitamin D | Vitamin E | |||
N | Mean (µg) ± SD | Mean (µg) ± SD | Mean (mg) ± SD | N | Mean (µg) ± SD | Mean (µg) ± SD | Mean (mg) ± SD | |
Diabetes mellitus | 14 | 2688.55 ± 2065.74 * | 16.61 ± 50.11 | 19.73 ± 9.25 | 35 | 1808.94 ± 820.34 * | 32.64 ± 64.98 | 21.80 ± 7.47 |
Kidney damage | 9 | 868.85 ± 797.70 | 3.45 ± 3.61 | 10.11 ± 7.04 * | 23 | 2830.17 ± 5826.18 | 8.47 ± 12.12 | 17.56 ± 8.68 * |
Metabolic syndrome | 66 | 2617.44 ± 4422.13 | 12.39 ± 29.83 | 19.40 ± 10.15 | 93 | 2100.90 ± 3068.78 | 13.14 ± 44.83 | 18.72 ± 12.86 |
Hypertriglyceridemia | 216 | 2327.85 ± 3792.64 | 11.20 ± 27.83 | 18.95 ± 10.61 | 109 | 2149.84 ± 2876.60 | 18.01 ± 52.52 | 19.62 ± 12.32 |
Hypercholesterolemia | 67 | 2170.14 ± 2712.68 | 10.027 ± 14.22 | 18.58 ± 11.14 | 49 | 2712.68 ± 3997.04 | 15.67 ± 40.59 | 20.41 ± 12.22 |
Obesity | 84 | 1609.50 ± 2051.38 | 7.09 ± 10.80 * | 16.66 ± 8.34 | 81 | 2260.91 ± 3711.34 | 16.24 ± 40.14 * | 18.17 ± 9.39 |
Overweight | 253 | 2200.86 ± 3547.93 | 11.64 ± 26.03 | 19.33 ± 10.78 | 184 | 2003.96 ± 2575.37 | 13.74 ± 31.56 | 18.35 ± 9.91 |
3.3. Prevalence of Comorbidities
3.4. Multivariate Analysis
Variable | RDI | Lower RDI | Higher RDI | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Vitamin A | Non-AHT (n (%)) | 36 (60.0) | 34 (63.0) | 250 (60.8) |
AHT (n (%)) | 24 (40.0) | 20 (37.0) | 161 (39.2) | |
ORc (95%CI) | 1.00 (ref) | 0.97 (0.57–1.68) | 0.88 (0.41–1.88) | |
ORa1 (95%CI) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.08 (0.59–1.99) | 0.91 (0.40–2.07) | |
ORa2 (95%CI) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.17 (0.63–2.15) | 1.80 (0.86–3.74) | |
ORa3 (95%CI) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.29 (0.65–2.54) | 1.55 (0.73–3.31) | |
Vitamin D | Non-AHT (n (%)) | 23 (53.5) | 180 (57.9) | 118 (71.1) |
AHT (n (%)) | 20 (46.5) | 131 (42.1) | 48 (28.9) | |
ORc (95%CI) | 1.00 (ref) | 0.47 (0.24–0.93) * | 0.84 (0.44–1.59) | |
ORa1 (95%CI) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.77 (0.83–3.80) | 1.71 (0.83–3.52) | |
ORa2 (95%CI) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.85 (0.85–4.01) | 1.80 (0.86–3.74) | |
ORa3 (95%CI) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.91 (0.86–4.24) | 1.55 (0.73–3.31) | |
Vitamin E | Non-AHT (n (%)) | 19 (65.5) | 17 (60.7) | 240 (66.3) |
AHT (n (%)) | 10 (34.5) | 11 (39.3) | 122 (33.7) | |
ORc (95%CI) | 1.00 (ref) | 0.97 (0.44–2.14) | 1.23 (0.42–3.61) | |
ORa1 (95%CI) | 1.00 (ref) | 0.90 (0.36–2.25) | 0.70 (0.20–2.39) | |
ORa2 (95%CI) | 1.00 (ref) | 0.91 (0.36–2.26) | 0.73 (0.21–2.52) | |
ORa3 (95%CI) | 1.00 (ref) | 1.04 (0.38–2.85) | 0.78 (0.22–2.76) |
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Llopis-González, A.; Rubio-López, N.; Pineda-Alonso, M.; Martín-Escudero, J.C.; Chaves, F.J.; Redondo, M.; Morales-Suarez-Varela, M. Hypertension and the Fat-Soluble Vitamins A, D and E. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 2793-2809. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120302793
Llopis-González A, Rubio-López N, Pineda-Alonso M, Martín-Escudero JC, Chaves FJ, Redondo M, Morales-Suarez-Varela M. Hypertension and the Fat-Soluble Vitamins A, D and E. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015; 12(3):2793-2809. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120302793
Chicago/Turabian StyleLlopis-González, Agustin, Nuria Rubio-López, Monica Pineda-Alonso, Juan Carlos Martín-Escudero, Felipe Javier Chaves, Maximino Redondo, and Maria Morales-Suarez-Varela. 2015. "Hypertension and the Fat-Soluble Vitamins A, D and E" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12, no. 3: 2793-2809. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120302793