**5. Conclusions**

These results indicate that children who were breastfed and exposed to active bonding during feeding displayed the lowest risks of internalizing behavior problems at age six years. Increased duration of breastfeeding (PRQWKVFRXOGDOVRKHOSORZHULQWHrnalizing problems in children (*i.e.*, a dosage effect). These findings were independent of several socio-demographic/family characteristics, as well as gender. It is possible that both nutrients (e.g., fatty acids) and maternal bonding interactively work to promote optimal neurodevelopment in early childhood, subsequently protecting children from internalizing disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and somatic complaints [48]. The promotion of active bonding practices during feeding (whether breastfeeding or formula feeding) may help reduce later internalizing behaviors in children by enhancing attachment between the mother and infant.
