A Comparison by Milk Feeding Method of the Nutrient Intake of a Cohort of Australian Toddlers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design
2.2. Setting and Recruitment
2.3. Ethical Considerations
2.4. Collection and Handling of Dietary Data
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Participant Characteristics
3.2. Nutrient Intake of Children
3.2.1. Comparison of Nutrient Intakes with Nutrient Reference Values
3.2.2. Comparison of Nutrient Intakes by Milk Feeding Method
3.3. Relationship of Milk Feeding Method and Adequacy of Selected Nutrients
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AIFG | Australian Infant Feeding Guidelines |
CI | Confidence interval |
EAR | Estimated average requirement |
IRSAD | Index of Relative Socio-Economic Advantage and Disadvantage |
NRV | Nutrient reference value |
OR | Odds ratio |
RE | Retinol equivalents |
UL | Upper level of intake |
Appendix A
References
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Total | Plausible | Implausible | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 832) | (n = 714) | (n = 118) | |||||
Maternal characteristics | n | % | n | % | n | % | p a |
Maternal age at birth (years) | |||||||
<25 | 74 | 8.9 | 62 | 8.7 | 12 | 10.3 | 0.583 |
25–29 | 259 | 31.2 | 227 | 31.9 | 32 | 27.4 | |
≥30 | 496 | 59.8 | 423 | 59.4 | 73 | 62.4 | |
Maternal education completed | |||||||
School/vocational | 358 | 43.4 | 310 | 43.7 | 48 | 41.0 | 0.585 |
Some university and above | 468 | 56.7 | 399 | 56.3 | 69 | 59.0 | |
IRSAD score b | |||||||
Deciles 1–2 | 120 | 14.5 | 104 | 14.7 | 16 | 13.7 | 0.941 |
Deciles 3–4 | 175 | 21.2 | 147 | 20.7 | 28 | 23.9 | |
Deciles 5–6 | 172 | 20.8 | 147 | 20.7 | 25 | 21.4 | |
Deciles 7–8 | 161 | 19.5 | 140 | 19.7 | 21 | 17.9 | |
Deciles 9–10 | 198 | 24.0 | 171 | 24.1 | 27 | 23.1 | |
Mother’s country of birth | |||||||
Australia and N. Zealand | 613 | 74.1 | 519 | 73.1 | 94 | 80.3 | 0.061 |
Asia—other | 57 | 6.9 | 35 | 4.8 | 5 | 1.7 | |
India | 50 | 6.0 | 47 | 6.6 | 3 | 2.6 | |
China | 36 | 4.4 | 34 | 3.2 | 2 | 6.8 | |
UK | 31 | 3.7 | 23 | 7.3 | 8 | 4.3 | |
Other | 40 | 4.8 | 35 | 4.7 | 5 | 4.3 | |
Maternal BMI c (kg/m2) | |||||||
<25 | 476 | 60.6 | 413 | 60.8 | 63 | 58.9 | 0.217 |
25–29.99 | 170 | 21.6 | 151 | 22.2 | 19 | 17.8 | |
>30 | 140 | 17.8 | 115 | 16.9 | 25 | 23.4 | |
Parity | |||||||
Primiparous | 388 | 48.2 | 336 | 48.7 | 52 | 45.2 | 0.489 |
Multiparous | 417 | 51.8 | 354 | 51.3 | 63 | 54.8 | |
Child characteristics | |||||||
Child age (mean SD) | 13.1 | 0.8 | 13.1 | 0.8 | 13.0 | 0.7 | 0.660 d |
Infant sex | |||||||
Boy | 455 | 54.7 | 395 | 55.3 | 60 | 50.8 | 0.366 |
Girl | 377 | 45.3 | 319 | 44.7 | 58 | 49.2 | |
Milk feeding method | |||||||
Breastmilk | 219 | 26.3 | 201 | 28.3 | 18 | 15.3 | <0.001 |
Breastmilk and formula | 68 | 8.2 | 59 | 8.3 | 9 | 7.6 | |
Infant formula | 314 | 37.7 | 275 | 38.5 | 39 | 33.1 | |
Other | 231 | 27.8 | 179 | 25.1 | 52 | 44.1 |
Average Intake/Day | Mean | SD | 25 | 75 | EAR | <EAR% | UL | >UL% |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total mass (kg) | 1179 | 393 | 993 | 1322 | ||||
Energy (kJ) | 3803 | 714 | 3297 | 4378 | ||||
Protein (g) | 36 | 11 | 28 | 44 | 12.0 | 0.0 | ||
Total carbohydrate (g) | 107 | 23 | 89 | 123 | ||||
Sugar (g) | 63 | 17 | 51 | 73 | ||||
Total fat (g) | 36 | 9 | 29 | 42 | ||||
Saturated fat (g) | 16.5 | 5.1 | 12.8 | 20.1 | ||||
Polyunsaturated fat (g) | 4.2 | 1.6 | 3.1 | 5.0 | ||||
Monounsaturated fat (g) | 12.3 | 3.4 | 10.0 | 14.3 | ||||
Dietary fibre (g) | 9.6 | 4.0 | 6.7 | 11.8 | ||||
Water (g) | 1013 | 386 | 809 | 1100 | ||||
Sodium (mg) | 725 | 324 | 487 | 916 | 1000 | 18.2 | ||
Potassium (mg) | 1467 | 433 | 1171 | 1745 | ||||
Calcium (mg) | 650 | 235 | 481 | 812 | 360 | 12.6 | 2500 | 0.0 |
Phosphorous (mg) | 736 | 229 | 573 | 888 | 380 | 6.3 | 3000 | 0.0 |
Magnesium (mg) | 137 | 38 | 110 | 164 | 65 | 2.0 | ||
Iron (mg) | 7.1 | 4.0 | 4.2 | 9.0 | 4 | 22.5 | 20 | 1.5 |
Zinc (mg) | 5.4 | 1.5 | 4.4 | 6.4 | 2.5 | 2.2 | 7 | 14.1 |
Vitamin A RE b (µg) | 726 | 492 | 487 | 851 | 210 | 0.4 | NA c | |
Thiamin (mg) | 0.8 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 0.4 | 14.4 | ||
Riboflavin (mg) | 1.4 | 0.6 | 1.0 | 1.8 | 0.4 | 2.1 | ||
Niacin equivalents (mg) | 16.6 | 5.5 | 12.8 | 19.8 | 5 | 0.0 | NA d | |
Folate (µg) | 321 | 130 | 226 | 404 | 120 | 3.1 | NA d | |
Vitamin C (mg) | 61 | 46 | 36 | 80 | 25 | 14.0 |
Milk Feeding Method | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Breastmilk (n = 201) | Combination—Breastmilk & Formula § (n = 59) | Formula § (n = 275) | Other (n = 179) | ||||||||||||
Average intake/day | Mean | SD | % CF | % BM | Mean | SD | % CF | % BM | % F | Mean | SD | % CF | % F | Mean | SD |
Total mass (g) | 1102 a | 263 | 67 | 33 | 1214 | 1047 | 58 | 21 | 21 | 1186 | 264 | 62 | 38 | 1240 a | 253 |
Energy (kJ) | 3708 a | 747 | 72 | 28 | 3557 b | 783 | 62 | 20 | 18 | 3723 c | 656 | 66 | 34 | 4111 a,b,c | 646 |
Protein (g) | 33 a | 10 | 84 | 16 | 30 b,c | 10 | 73 | 12 | 15 | 35 b,d | 9 | 74 | 26 | 45 a,c,d | 9 |
Total carbohydrate (g) | 100 a,b | 25 | 75 | 25 | 102 | 21 | 65 | 16 | 19 | 110 a | 21 | 66 | 34 | 111 b | 22 |
Total fat (g) | 38 a | 9 | 60 | 40 | 35 | 12 | 49 | 30 | 21 | 33 a,b | 8 | 58 | 42 | 38 b | 9 |
Na (mg) | 700 a,b | 393 | 89 | 11 | 546 a,c,d | 183 | 79 | 8 | 13 | 687 c,e | 279 | 78 | 22 | 872 b,d,e | 284 |
Ca (mg) | 467 a,b | 175 | 72 | 28 | 522 c,d | 191 | 50 | 17 | 33 | 703 a,c,e | 177 | 50 | 50 | 815 b,d,e | 229 |
Fe (mg) | 5.0 a,b | 3.3 | 97 | 3 | 7.8 a,c,d | 4.3 | 68 | 1 | 31 | 9.3 b,c,e | 3.1 | 50 | 50 | 5.9 d,e | 4.2 |
Zinc (mg) | 4.2 a,b,c | 1.2 | 84 | 16 | 5.1 a,d,e | 2 | 63 | 10 | 27 | 6.2 b,d,f | 1.2 | 56 | 44 | 5.6 c,e,f | 1.2 |
Thiamin (mg) | 0.7 a,b | 0.5 | 89 | 11 | 0.7 c | 0.3 | 72 | 6 | 22 | 0.9 a,c | 0.4 | 64 | 36 | 0.9 b | 0.6 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 52 a,b,c | 21 | 62 | 38 | 69 a,d | 30 | 44 | 20 | 36 | 83 b,e | 58 | 40 | 60 | 36 c,d,e | 30 |
Total (n = 714) | Breastmilk (n = 201) | Formula (n = 334) | Other (n = 179) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Calcium | ||||||||
Number (%) below EAR | 90 | (12.6) | 64 | (31.8) | 19 | (5.7) | 7 | (3.9) |
Adjusted # odds ratio (95% CI) | Ref | 0.13 | (0.07–0.22) | 0.09 | (0.04–0.19) | |||
Iron | ||||||||
Number (%) below EAR | 161 | (22.5) | 98 | (48.8) | 11 | (3.3) | 52 | (29.1) |
Adjusted # odds ratio (95% CI) | Ref | 0.04 | (0.02–0.07) | 0.42 | (0.27–0.64) | |||
Thiamin | ||||||||
Number (%) below EAR | 103 | (14.4) | 62 | (30.8) | 19 | (5.7) | 22 | (12.3) |
Adjusted # odds ratio (95% CI) | Ref | 0.13 | (0.07–0.23) | 0.30 | (0.17–0.51) | |||
Vitamin C | ||||||||
Number (%) below EAR | 100 | (14.0) | 15 | (7.5) | 6 | (1.8) | 79 | (44.1) |
Adjusted # odds ratio (95% CI) | Ref | 0.23 | (0.09–0.59) | 9.64 | (5.27–17.62) | |||
Zinc | ||||||||
Number (%) above UL | 101 | (14.1) | 4 | (2.0) | 75 | (22.5) | 22 | (12.3) |
Adjusted # odds ratio (95% CI) | Ref | 13.5 | (4.85–37.66) | 6.35 | (2.14–18.85) | |||
Sodium | ||||||||
Number (%) above UL | 130 | (18.2) | 33 | (16.4) | 45 | (13.5) | 52 | (29.1) |
Adjusted # odds ratio (95% CI) | Ref | 0.79 | (0.49–1.29) | 2.10 | (1.28–3.44) |
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Scott, J.; Davey, K.; Ahwong, E.; Devenish, G.; Ha, D.; Do, L. A Comparison by Milk Feeding Method of the Nutrient Intake of a Cohort of Australian Toddlers. Nutrients 2016, 8, 501. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8080501
Scott J, Davey K, Ahwong E, Devenish G, Ha D, Do L. A Comparison by Milk Feeding Method of the Nutrient Intake of a Cohort of Australian Toddlers. Nutrients. 2016; 8(8):501. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8080501
Chicago/Turabian StyleScott, Jane, Kristina Davey, Ellen Ahwong, Gemma Devenish, Diep Ha, and Loc Do. 2016. "A Comparison by Milk Feeding Method of the Nutrient Intake of a Cohort of Australian Toddlers" Nutrients 8, no. 8: 501. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8080501