Sports

19 pages, 2386 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Putting the Fe into Female Athletes: Insights into Heightened Iron Status and Women’s Australian Football Performance—A Case Study

by Michael Pengelly, Kate Pumpa, David Bruce Pyne and Naroa Etxebarria

Sports 2025, 13(5), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050136 - 29 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: Iron deficiency affects up to 70% of female athletes, yet the effectiveness of improving iron status in team sport athletes remains unclear. Purpose: To evaluate the impact of variations in iron status on physical performance in elite female Australian Rules Football players. [...] Read more.

Background: Iron deficiency affects up to 70% of female athletes, yet the effectiveness of improving iron status in team sport athletes remains unclear. Purpose: To evaluate the impact of variations in iron status on physical performance in elite female Australian Rules Football players. Methods: Iron status was measured in 30 players (age 23 ± 4 y; body mass 70 ± 6 kg) across three time-points of a 24-week season. Players identified as iron deficient non-anemic stage 2 in week 1 received an iron infusion. Remaining players were categorized into heightened iron status (FeUP; iron deficient non-anemic stage 1 players who were advised to take iron supplementation; n = 8) or non-supplemented (Ctrl; week 10: n = 17; week 24: n = 16) groups following week 10. Relative external load measures (e.g., total distance at different velocities), and strength and power measures (e.g., counter-movement jump, reactive strength index) were recorded in weeks 10 and 24 (same weeks as blood samples) to compare physical performance between FeUP and Ctrl groups. Results: Iron status improved in FeUP (30 µg/L to 49 µg/L) and reduced in Ctrl (39 µg/L to 34 µg/L) between weeks 10 and 24. Iron deficiency prevalence among all players was 47–54%. FeUp exhibited small to moderate improvements (5–19%) in some external load measures but no consistent improvement across all measures. At week 24, FeUP showed trivial to moderate differences outperforming Ctrl in seven physical performance measures (e.g., both hip adduction tests), but Ctrl outperformed FeUP in all other measures. Conclusion: Heightened iron status does not consistently enhance physical performance, although avoiding deficiency remains essential for athlete health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Performance and Promoting Health Through Nutrition)

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13 pages, 901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Unilateral Strength Training Optimize Change of Direction Mechanics and Mitigate Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Risk in Female Soccer Players? A Preliminary Pre–Post Intervention Study

by Alice Rogalski, Ayrton Moiroux-Sahraoui, Maria Stergiou, Maxence Pieulhet, Maurice Douryang and Florian Forelli

Sports 2025, 13(5), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050135 - 29 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are a major concern in female soccer players, with change of direction (COD) movements being a key contributor to non-contact injuries. Traditional injury prevention programs have shown limited effectiveness in addressing individual biomechanical deficits. This study aimed [...] Read more.

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are a major concern in female soccer players, with change of direction (COD) movements being a key contributor to non-contact injuries. Traditional injury prevention programs have shown limited effectiveness in addressing individual biomechanical deficits. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a 10-week unilateral strength training program on COD mechanics and ACL injury risk factors. Methods: Eleven female soccer players participated in a pre–post intervention study. Movement mechanics was assessed using the Cutting Movement Assessment Score (CMAS) at 45°, 75°, and 90° angles. The training program included unilateral lower limb strengthening exercises designed to enhance neuromuscular control and reduce biomechanical risk factors. Risk profiles were analyzed before and after the intervention. Statistical analyses included paired t-tests and effect size calculations. Results: Significant improvements in CMAS scores were observed at all COD angles (p < 0.05), with the largest effect at 90° (Cohen’s d = 2.1). The percentage of high-risk players decreased from 82% to 0%, while the proportion of low-risk players increased from 36% to 73%. Improved knee alignment, foot placement, and trunk stability were key contributors to the observed movement enhancements. Conclusions: Unilateral strength training may effectively improve COD mechanics and reduces biomechanical risk factors associated with ACL injuries in female soccer players. Our findings suggest that individualized training interventions can influence current injury prevention strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women's Special Issue Series: Sports)

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10 pages, 939 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Consensus of Return-to-Play Criteria After Adductor Longus Injury in Professional Soccer

by José Luis Estévez Rodríguez, Jesús Rivilla García, Sergio L. Jiménez-Sáiz and Sergio Jiménez-Rubio

Sports 2025, 13(5), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050134 - 27 Apr 2025

Abstract

Return to play (RTP) decision making in professional soccer is crucial for minimising re-injury risk, reducing financial burdens on clubs, and optimising player performance. Despite its significance, there is a lack of objective criteria and consensus on RTP for adductor longus injuries, one [...] Read more.

Return to play (RTP) decision making in professional soccer is crucial for minimising re-injury risk, reducing financial burdens on clubs, and optimising player performance. Despite its significance, there is a lack of objective criteria and consensus on RTP for adductor longus injuries, one of the most common muscle injuries in soccer. The aim of the present consensus was to validate an RTP protocol based on clinical, functional, and performance criteria through expert evaluation. This study hypothesises that a validated RTP protocol for adductor longus injuries will enhance decision making, reduce re-injury rates, and improve player performance upon return. An observational survey was designed to validate an RTP protocol through an expert panel. A total of 63 injury-management professionals (strength and conditioning coaches, physiotherapists, doctors, and rehabilitation fitness coaches) with an average experience of 12.02 ± 6.87 years participated in validating a 20-criteria RTP protocol. The protocol, divided into clinical, functional, and performance criteria, was assessed using a 5-point Likert scale. Aiken’s V coefficient was calculated for content validity, with criteria validated if Aiken’s V ≥ 0.75. Out of 20 initial RTP criteria, 14 were validated by the expert panel, with Aiken’s V ranging from 0.77 to 0.94 (overall range: 0.61–0.98). Key validated criteria included pain on palpation, flexibility, imaging, athlete feedback, strength assessments, movement quality, pre-injury GPS data, and performance under simulated match conditions. Criteria such as the Copenhagen adduction exercise and specific agility tests were not validated. The expert-validated RTP protocol for adductor longus injuries provides a structured approach to decision making, potentially reducing re-injury risk, improving rehabilitation strategies, and enhancing player performance. These findings could be integrated into clinical sports-medicine practices to enhance rehabilitation effectiveness and RTP decisions in professional soccer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Research on Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players)

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10 pages, 236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gender-Based Analysis of Oral Health Outcomes Among Elite Athletes

by Alejandro Carlos de la Parte-Serna, Francesca Monticelli, Francisco Pradas, Miguel Lecina and Alejandro García-Giménez

Sports 2025, 13(5), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050133 - 27 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: Research in dental science reveals a need for enhanced oral healthcare among elite athletes due to the stress generated by excessive exercise. Consideration of the inherent biological distinctions between men and women is crucial in sports dentistry. Objectives: Thus, this study aims [...] Read more.

Background: Research in dental science reveals a need for enhanced oral healthcare among elite athletes due to the stress generated by excessive exercise. Consideration of the inherent biological distinctions between men and women is crucial in sports dentistry. Objectives: Thus, this study aims to analyse the differences in oral health status among elite athletes based on gender. A total of 186 elite athletes (150 men and 36 women) recognised in the region of Aragon (Spain) participated in this study (mean age 24.99 ± 9.34), all of whom practise individual sports. Methods: Oral health status analysis included: periodontal, malocclusion and tooth status measured using the restoration index (RI) and the decayed, missing and filled teeth (DMFT) index. Results: Women had fewer teeth, a lower restoration index (p < 0.05) and lower DMFT index values (p < 0.001); furthermore, this group showed a greater number of missing teeth (p < 0.001) and decayed teeth (p < 0.05). There were no statistical differences in malocclusion, plaque, gingival bleeding, dental erosion or bruxism values between the genders. Mouthguard usage was low (men = 9.4% vs. women = 14.3%; p = 0.57). Conclusions: This study highlights the need for a multidisciplinary approach to address the high prevalence of oral health issues among elite athletes, despite the differences in health status between men and women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Competition and Sports Training: A Challenge for Public Health)

16 pages, 1128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Imagination on Performance in Ballet: A Case Study

by Eisa Alokla, Maximilian Stasica, Martin Puttke, Vahid Firouzi, Maziar Ahmad Sharbafi and André Seyfarth

Sports 2025, 13(5), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050132 - 24 Apr 2025

Abstract

Mental images such as foci of attention can significantly enhance the quality of movements, providing a positive effect on human performance, e.g., in dancers or athletes. Thirteen participants (height = 161 ± 13 cm, mass = 46.4 ± 17.3 kg, and age = [...] Read more.

Mental images such as foci of attention can significantly enhance the quality of movements, providing a positive effect on human performance, e.g., in dancers or athletes. Thirteen participants (height = 161 ± 13 cm, mass = 46.4 ± 17.3 kg, and age = 21 ± 8.4 years) with varying levels of experience in classical ballet were divided into three groups (amateur, professional, and children). Each participant performed three sauté en suite jumps, followed by an instruction to imagine “taking the floor with them” during the jump. The study aimed to assess the effect of this external focus on jumping performance using biomechanical modeling. Results showed a statistically significant increase in jump height and an expanded range of motion in the hip and knee joints after the intervention, suggesting a positive influence on movement quality. However, results varied among groups, with no significant change in leg stiffness across participants, though tendencies appeared within each group. These findings indicate that an external focus of attention could be a useful tool in dance pedagogy, enhancing performance quality across experience levels and supporting individual progress. The study recommends further research to explore the full impact of psychologically effective instructions on various aspects of physical performance. Full article

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20 pages, 3854 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review Articles on Soccer Performance Analysis: A Bibliometric Analysis of Current Trends and Emerging Themes

by Spyridon Plakias

Sports 2025, 13(5), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050131 - 24 Apr 2025

Abstract

Objectives: This study aimed to analyze review articles on soccer performance analysis (PA) using a bibliometric approach to address three main research questions: (a) How has the publication of review articles related to soccer PA evolved over time? (b) Which authors and journals [...] Read more.

Objectives: This study aimed to analyze review articles on soccer performance analysis (PA) using a bibliometric approach to address three main research questions: (a) How has the publication of review articles related to soccer PA evolved over time? (b) Which authors and journals have been the most influential in this field and what are the collaboration networks between them? (c) What are the dominant topics, methodological issues, and gaps in the relevant literature? Methods: A systematic search was conducted in the Scopus database on 24 January 2025, using a comprehensive Boolean expression to identify relevant review articles. The extracted data were analyzed using VOSviewer (1.6.20.0). We employed bibliometric performance analysis, science mapping, and clustering techniques including co-authorship, co-occurrence, bibliographic coupling, and co-citation analyses. Results: The study included 314 review articles, demonstrating an exponential increase in publications since 2017. The most influential journal was Sports Medicine, while the leading authors included F. M. Clemente and H. Sarmento. Co-occurrence analysis revealed five thematic clusters covering physical performance, nutrition, coaching strategies, tactical analysis, and emerging data-driven approaches. Notably, significant gaps in the literature were identified in the areas of set pieces, key performance indicators, and contextual variables. Conclusions: This bibliometric analysis, creating a comprehensive map of the review articles on soccer PA, highlights the diverse and interdisciplinary nature of soccer PA research, identifies gaps in the literature, and offers practical considerations for researchers and journal editors aiming to advance the field of soccer PA. Full article

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13 pages, 990 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Mental Game of Tennis: A Scoping Review and the Introduction of the Resilience Racket Model

by Gerasimos N. Konstantinou, Stefan Kloiber and Daniel M. Blumberger

Sports 2025, 13(5), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050130 - 23 Apr 2025

Abstract

This review examines the relationship between tennis participation and mental health, highlighting both the psychological benefits and challenges associated with the sport. Using a retrospective, citation-based methodology, peer-reviewed studies published in English, French, and Greek between 2000 and March 2025 were included. The [...] Read more.

This review examines the relationship between tennis participation and mental health, highlighting both the psychological benefits and challenges associated with the sport. Using a retrospective, citation-based methodology, peer-reviewed studies published in English, French, and Greek between 2000 and March 2025 were included. The findings indicate that tennis participation is associated with reductions in depressive and anxiety symptoms, improved self-confidence, and enhanced resilience. However, competitive tennis also presents significant psychological demands, including elevated stress levels and susceptibility to maladaptive coping behaviors. To address these complexities, this review introduces the Resilience Racket Model, a conceptual framework representing the integration of physical readiness, psychological resilience, and systemic support. The model uses the metaphor of a tennis racket: the handle reflects foundational physical skills; the strings represent resilience components; the frame denotes environmental and organizational support; and the sweet spot signifies the optimal balance between physical and mental readiness. The review also highlights the effectiveness of psychological interventions, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy and mindfulness, in supporting athlete well-being. These findings advocate for a holistic approach to athlete development, emphasizing parity between mental health and physical training, and call for further research into tailored, sport-specific mental health interventions in tennis. Full article

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17 pages, 1844 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neuromuscular Responses to 5 K Time Trial Load Carried by Spanish Army Marines

by Beltrán Cáceres-Diego, Pedro E. Alcaraz and Cristian Marín-Pagán

Sports 2025, 13(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040129 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

One of the physical requirements for marines involves covering a specific distance while carrying individual combat gear, supplies, or other military equipment across challenging terrain. Training for this physically and mentally demanding task is a routine component of their preparation. However, further research [...] Read more.

One of the physical requirements for marines involves covering a specific distance while carrying individual combat gear, supplies, or other military equipment across challenging terrain. Training for this physically and mentally demanding task is a routine component of their preparation. However, further research is needed to better understand the neuromuscular impact of such demanding efforts, strenuous maneuvers, and the recovery process in the subsequent days. Twenty-nine marines completed a 5 km time trial while carrying 24 kg of combat gear, undergoing evaluations at four time points: pre exercise, immediately post exercise, 24 h post exercise, and 48 h post exercise. Repeated measures ANOVA, paired samples t-test, and effect size (ES) analysis were conducted, presenting the results as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). The significance level was set at p ≤ 0.05. Several variables and their corresponding p-values demonstrated changes over time, including the following: the isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) (p = 0.001); countermovement jump height (VJ CMJ) (p ≤ 0.001); rating of fatigue scale (ROF) (p ≤ 0.001); blood lactate (BL) levels (p ≤ 0.001); maximum pull-ups (PUmax) (p ≤ 0.001); body mass (BM) (p ≤ 0.001); dominant hand grip strength (DHGS) (p = 0.406); and non-dominant hand grip strength (NDHGS) (p = 0.805). Incident reports and perceived effort (IRPE) revealed a progressive and significant increase between the first and last kilometer of the test, specifically in perceived variables of fatigue, muscle pain, joint pain, shortness of breath, palpitations, excessive sweating, and muscle tremors (all p ≤ 0.001). These findings may contribute to optimizing training programs to better align with operational demands, thereby improving task performance and overall mission effectiveness. In conclusion, the military test had a significant neuromuscular impact on the body, initially resulting in the potentiation of absolute global isometric strength and lower-limb power. However, these values declined below the baseline levels at 24 and 48 h post test. Full article

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15 pages, 1578 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Perception of Effort as a Basis for Improving Physical Efficacy and Efficiency in Italian Military School Students

by Gabriele Signorini, Raffaele Scurati, Andrea Bosio, Maurizio Pizzoli, Angelo Pagano, Gaetano Raiola and Pietro Luigi Invernizzi

Sports 2025, 13(4), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040128 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

Military schools primarily aim to prepare young people for the admission procedures of military academies. In this specific environment, the high overall load can generate burnout in cadets and the consequent failure to achieve scholastic and military objectives. The present study investigated how [...] Read more.

Military schools primarily aim to prepare young people for the admission procedures of military academies. In this specific environment, the high overall load can generate burnout in cadets and the consequent failure to achieve scholastic and military objectives. The present study investigated how a training protocol based entirely on internal load and a reflective approach in a military-type school context affects participants’ physical efficacy, efficiency, and psychological outcomes. For this study, 63 cadets who were 17 years old from an Italian military school were recruited. Twenty-two of them were allocated into a control group (CG), twenty-one were allocated into a group exercising based on external load (EG), and twenty we allocated into a group exercising based on internal load (IG). All groups performed tests of physical efficacy (maximal tests) and physical efficiency (self-perception-based submaximal test) and answered psychological questionnaires to assess motivation, self-efficacy, and enjoyment. Group participants attended eight weeks of interventions in which physical education lessons were led as follows: the EG performed a circuit training at 50% of maximal repetitions, the IG performed a circuit training at value six on Borg’s scale, and the CG attended curricular physical education lessons. Tests were then repeated. The IG increased physical efficacy more than the EG and CG, while only the IG increased physical efficiency. The IG and EG improved in psychological variables more than the CG. Education in self-perception and self-regulation could help cadets better manage their psychophysical status, allowing them to reach the physical demands for academic admission. Full article

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11 pages, 201 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Peer Violence in Youth Sport: Do Age, Year of Training, and Type of Sport Affect Outcomes?

by Brigita Banjac, Ivana M. Milovanovic, Radenko M. Matic, Stevo Popovic, Zeljka Bojanic, Emanuele Isidori and Patrik Drid

Sports 2025, 13(4), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040127 - 21 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: In sports and physical activities, destructive behaviors such as aggression and violence are not uncommon. Although sports and physical activities have many benefits, they can also have negative consequences. This study aimed to investigate the factors that can contribute to the manifestation [...] Read more.

Background: In sports and physical activities, destructive behaviors such as aggression and violence are not uncommon. Although sports and physical activities have many benefits, they can also have negative consequences. This study aimed to investigate the factors that can contribute to the manifestation of aggression and interpersonal violence (IV). The variables incorporated were the athletes’ age, sports experience (training years), and type of sport. Methods: This study included n = 2091 youth athletes (aged between 11 and 18 years) from Serbia, with a cross-sectional study design. The data were collected through a questionnaire and analyzed using the Chi-square and Mann–Whitney U tests in IBM SPSS. Results: The athletes’ ages and the types of sports (collective and contact) in which they participated are associated with aggression and IV manifestation. In addition, physical violence tends to be more common among older athletes in collective and contact sports, while psychological violence is more prevalent among older athletes who train for five or more years and participate in collective and non-contact sports. Conclusions: Identifying some of the correlated factors in aggression and IV manifestation among youth athletes could help in the development of strategies to reduce these destructive behaviors in youth sports. Full article

20 pages, 750 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Training Considerations for Futsal Players According to Strength and Conditioning Coaches: A Qualitative Study

by Rafael Albalad-Aiguabella, David Navarrete-Villanueva, Elena Mainer-Pardos, Oscar Villanueva-Guerrero, Borja Muniz-Pardos and Germán Vicente-Rodríguez

Sports 2025, 13(4), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040126 - 18 Apr 2025

Abstract

The professionalization of futsal requires greater physical demands on players, requiring strength and conditioning coaches to manage loads, optimize performance, and prevent injuries. This study aimed to describe the current practices of high-level strength and conditioning coaches and determine the elements needed to [...] Read more.

The professionalization of futsal requires greater physical demands on players, requiring strength and conditioning coaches to manage loads, optimize performance, and prevent injuries. This study aimed to describe the current practices of high-level strength and conditioning coaches and determine the elements needed to optimize their performance. Two video-recorded focus groups consisting of eight strength and conditioning coaches from the Spanish futsal league’s first and second divisions were transcribed, translated, and analyzed using a content analysis approach with open-ended questions on physical preparation and current practices. Results showed that strength and conditioning coaches prioritized five main areas: (1) competitive demands, (2) training load control and monitoring, (3) injury risk mitigation strategies, (4) contextual factors and interpersonal relationships, and (5) training methodologies to optimize performance. However, they also claim to deal with several limitations such as lack of time, limited resources and access to facilities, insufficient staff, problems related to combining sport with other activities (e.g., work), or the difficulty to individualize, which limits the optimization of their practices. Based on these findings, practical applications include implementing neuromuscular and strength training sessions at least twice a week, using cost-effective load monitoring tools (e.g., RPE and wellness questionnaires) to manage workloads, individualizing training programs to address the specific demands and characteristics of each player, and fostering close multidisciplinary collaboration to optimize performance and reduce injury risks. These insights can guide current and aspiring strength and conditioning coaches toward optimized practices. This study can assist novice strength and conditioning coaches in identifying the key focus areas of elite physical trainers and understanding their challenges and limitations, fostering collaboration among sports professionals to create a more optimized environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)

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19 pages, 1145 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Motivational Level of Performance Swimmers and Its Impact on the Risk of Sports Dropout

by Valentina Brat, Aura Bota, Georgeta Mitrache and Silvia Teodorescu

Sports 2025, 13(4), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040125 - 17 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: Motivation is a crucial factor in maintaining athletic performance and preventing dropout among competitive athletes. This process is influenced by both physical and psychosocial factors, which interact and shape decision—making regarding continued participation or withdrawal from sports. Aim: This study examines the [...] Read more.

Background: Motivation is a crucial factor in maintaining athletic performance and preventing dropout among competitive athletes. This process is influenced by both physical and psychosocial factors, which interact and shape decision—making regarding continued participation or withdrawal from sports. Aim: This study examines the motivational level of competitive swimmers in Romania, related to the dropout perspective. Methods: In order to conduct the research, the AMI (Achievement Motivation Inventory)—a validated psychometric tool was used in two distinct phases, conducted six months apart. The study included N = 20 swimmers, finalists and medalists in national swimming competitions. The intervention consisted of motivational coaching, personalized training plans, and the development of mental skills. Results: The results highlighted significant improvements in dimensions such as success confidence, compensatory effort, and goal-setting, indicating the positive effects of the intervention on athletes’ motivation. Inferential analysis using Student t-test confirmed significant differences between the initial and final assessments, for eagerness to learn (p = 0.035), status orientation (p = 0.03) and the Wilcoxon test revealed significant difference for general motivational index (p = 0.020). Conclusions: The findings underscore the importance of psychological approaches in training high-performance athletes, showing that maintaining motivation and clarifying goals are essential factors in preventing sports dropout. The conclusions of this research can serve as a foundation for developing coaching strategies aimed at supporting continuity in performance swimming and reducing the dropout rate among competitive swimmers. Our findings confirm similar studies emphasizing the role of the training patterns and coach influence not just on the performing athlete, but also on his psychosocial individual development. Full article

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15 pages, 981 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Association of Controlled Physical Activity with Weight Loss and Less Limitations for Hypertensive Patients

by Roxana Cristina Rad Bodan, Adina Octavia Dușe, Eniko Gabriela Papp, Răzvan Marian Melinte and Minodora Andor

Sports 2025, 13(4), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040124 - 17 Apr 2025

Abstract

Background: The overweight population is a major public health problem which is typical for the 21st century, considering the peak of the noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). The connection between hypertension—the number-one risk factor of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs)—and the body mass index (BMI), which is [...] Read more.

Background: The overweight population is a major public health problem which is typical for the 21st century, considering the peak of the noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). The connection between hypertension—the number-one risk factor of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs)—and the body mass index (BMI), which is growing worldwide, needs to be taken into consideration. Methods: Four homogeneous groups of twenty-five patients each with hypertension degree 1 benefited from different 8-week recovery programs: recommendation for a healthy lifestyle (all groups—A, B, C and D), antihypertensive medication (groups B, C and D), physical therapy program (group C), and hydrotherapy program (group D). Four parameters were pursued: body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (Wcir.), and systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP-DBP). Results: Intragroup comparison between initial and final testing registered a statistically significant decrease in all parameters for group C: BMI (p = 0.001), Wcir, SBP and DBP (p < 0.0001). Additionally, parameters of group D decreased significantly: BMI (p = 0.0005), Wcir, SBP and DBP (each p < 0.0001). Group A registered a statistical increase in the DPB parameter (p = 0.03), and group B had a significant decrease in SBP (p = 0.03). Conclusions: Implication in established physical therapy and hydrotherapy had a better outcome in diminishing all four parameters compared to the recommendations for a healthy lifestyle when patients had to improve their lifestyle by themselves, unsupervised. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benefits of Physical Activity and Exercise to Human Health)

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27 pages, 2520 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Effects of Physical Exercise on Executive Function in Schizophrenia: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Nuria Pérez-Romero, Christian Campos-Jara, Caterina Pesce, Sergio Araya Sierralta, Enrique Cerda-Vega, Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo, Rodrigo Campos-Jara, Cristian Martínez-Salazar, Cristián Arellano-Roco, Victoria Hernández-Cifuentes and Falonn Contreras-Osorio

Sports 2025, 13(4), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040123 - 16 Apr 2025

Abstract

Executive functions are often impaired in individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Understanding the impact of physical exercise on these cognitive domains is essential for developing effective interventions. The aim of this review is to assess the effect of physical exercise on executive functions [...] Read more.

Executive functions are often impaired in individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Understanding the impact of physical exercise on these cognitive domains is essential for developing effective interventions. The aim of this review is to assess the effect of physical exercise on executive functions in adults diagnosed with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. A systematic search was conducted in Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and EBSCO, initially from inception through January 2024, followed by an update through January 2025. Studies involved adults diagnosed with schizophrenia spectrum disorders, employed physical exercise as an intervention, and measured executive functions as outcomes. The selection followed PRISMA guidelines, with inclusion determined by consensus among multiple reviewers. Data extraction and risk of bias assessment were conducted independently by two reviewers using the Cochrane RoB 2 tool and GRADE approach for certainty of evidence. Meta-analyses were performed using random-effects models, with effect sizes (ES) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) calculated for each outcome. From 1517 records, 9 studies were included in the meta-analysis. The analysis revealed a small but significant effect of physical exercise on working memory (ES = 0.300, 95% CI = 0.060–0.539, p = 0.014; I² = 0.0%, Q = 2.2, p = 0.951) and a non-significant effect on emotion recognition (ES = 0.51, 95% CI = −0.291–1.303, p = 0.213; I² = 83%), inhibition (ES = 0.156, 95% CI = −0.173 to 0.484, p = 0.353; I² = 0.0%, Q = 1.1, p = 0.781), and cognitive flexibility (ES = 0.240, 95% CI = −0.270 to 0.749, 95% PI = −1.706 to 2.185; p = 0.356; I² = 53.2%, Q = 3.0, p = 0.094). Physical exercise, particularly aerobic exercise, appears to have a small beneficial effect on working memory in individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. However, the evidence for its effect on emotion recognition is less clear and may be influenced by the type of exercise, such as yoga. Further research is needed to provide more robust conclusions. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42023392295. Full article

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11 pages, 222 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sports Supplement Use in Road Cycling: A Comparative Analysis by Sex and Competitive Category

by Jesús García-Durán, David Romero-García, José Miguel Martínez-Sanz, José Antonio González-Jurado and Antonio Jesús Sánchez-Oliver

Sports 2025, 13(4), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040122 - 16 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study analyzes and compares sports supplement (SS) consumption among federated road cyclists, considering sex and competition category. The aim is to identify key factors influencing SS use and provide insights for developing nutritional strategies in cycling. A cross-sectional, descriptive study was conducted, [...] Read more.

This study analyzes and compares sports supplement (SS) consumption among federated road cyclists, considering sex and competition category. The aim is to identify key factors influencing SS use and provide insights for developing nutritional strategies in cycling. A cross-sectional, descriptive study was conducted, involving 1503 cyclists (1231 men and 272 women). Data were collected through a validated questionnaire assessing anthropometric data, training habits, SS consumption patterns, and sources of information. Results indicate that 64.3% of cyclists currently use SS. Women reported a significantly higher consumption rate (88.2%) compared to men (59.1%), although men had a higher average SS intake than women (8.28 ± 9.36 vs. 6.76 ± 5.96). Additionally, SS use decreased with age and competition level, with elite cyclists showing the highest prevalence (76.3%) and master 50 the lowest (58.4%). Group A supplements (scientifically supported) were the most frequently used, while Group C supplements (limited evidence) and Group D substances (prohibited) were more commonly consumed by men. Findings highlight significant differences in SS consumption based on sex and competition level, with elite cyclists and women reporting higher prevalence. However, men reported a higher average number of SS consumed. The study underscores the need for targeted nutritional education, particularly among master cyclists, to promote evidence-based SS use and minimize the risks of ineffective or unsafe supplementation. Future research should explore the long-term effects of SS consumption in cycling and the effectiveness of educational interventions for safe and optimized supplementation practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)

13 pages, 3138 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Different Ranges of Loads on Physical Performance Using Velocity-Based Resistance Training

by Javier Riscart-López, Juan Sánchez-Valdepeñas, Fernando Colomina-Clemens, Esteban Crespo-García, Guillermo de Castro-Maqueda, Miguel Ángel Rosety-Rodríguez, Juan Antonio León-Prados and Fernando Pareja-Blanco

Sports 2025, 13(4), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040121 - 16 Apr 2025

Abstract

(1) Background: The range of loads is defined as the difference between the highest and the lowest relative load (i.e., %1RM) used throughout a resistance training program. However, the optimal range of loads has not been studied yet. Thus, the aim of this [...] Read more.

(1) Background: The range of loads is defined as the difference between the highest and the lowest relative load (i.e., %1RM) used throughout a resistance training program. However, the optimal range of loads has not been studied yet. Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of different ranges of load (from 50 to 85% 1RM (R_50–85), from 55 to 75% 1RM (R_55–75), and from 60 to 70% 1RM (R_60–70) on physical performance using velocity-based resistance training (VBT). (2) Methods: Thirty-eight men (mean ± standard deviation; age: 23.3 ± 3.6 years, body mass: 76.5 ± 8.3 kg, and height: 1.77 ± 0.04 m) were randomly assigned to R_50–85, R_55–75 and R_60–70 groups and followed an 8-week VBT intervention using the full squat (SQ) exercise. All groups trained with similar mean relative intensity (65% 1RM) and total volume (240 repetitions). Pre- and post-training measurements included the following: in the SQ exercise, 1RM load, the average velocity attained for all absolute loads common to pre-tests and post-tests (AV), and the average velocity for those loads that were moved faster (AV > 1) and slower (AV < 1) than 1 m·s⁻¹ at Pre-training tests. Moreover, countermovement jump (CMJ) height and 10 m (T10), 20 m (T20), and 10–20 m (T10–20) running sprint times were measured. (3) Results: Significant group x time interactions were observed in AV (p ≤ 0.01), where R_50–85 obtained significantly greater gains than R_60–70 (p ≤ 0.05). All groups attained significant increases in 1RM, AV, AV > 1, AV < 1, and CMJ (p ≤ 0.001–0.005). Significant improvements were observed in running sprint for R_60–70 in T10–20 and R_60–70 in T20 and T10–20 (p ≤ 0.05), but not for R_50–85. (4) Conclusions: Different ranges of loads induce distinct strength adaptions. Greater ranges of loads resulted in greater strength gains in the entire load-velocity spectrum. However, in high-velocity actions, such as sprinting, significant enhancements were observed only for smaller ranges of loads. Coaches and strength and conditioning professionals could use a range of loads according to the time-related criterion (i.e., proximity or number of future competitions), enabling better adaptation and increasing physical performance at a specific time. Full article

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11 pages, 370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Justifications for Judgment Accuracy in Sports

by Athanasia Chatzipanteli, Aglaia Zafeiroudi, Ioannis Trigonis, Ioannis Tsartsapakis, Alexandros Fotiadis, Asterios Patsiaouras and Nikolaos Digelidis

Sports 2025, 13(4), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040120 - 14 Apr 2025

Abstract

This study investigated the causes of incorrect judgments in a motor task and examined differences between students with varying levels of judgment accuracy. Twenty-two seventh graders participated. Based on their estimated and actual scores in two volleyball serve trials, students were categorized into [...] Read more.

This study investigated the causes of incorrect judgments in a motor task and examined differences between students with varying levels of judgment accuracy. Twenty-two seventh graders participated. Based on their estimated and actual scores in two volleyball serve trials, students were categorized into two groups: “low accuracy” and “high accuracy”. Before each trial, they estimated their scores according to the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance test. Following the trials, students were interviewed about their justifications and their confidence in the accuracy of their judgments. Independent sample t-tests indicated that both “low accuracy” and “high accuracy” students appeared to use metacognitive skills (t(20) = 0.82, p > 0.05). However, the “low accuracy” group lacked the declarative and procedural knowledge (t(20) = 4.59, p < 0.001) necessary for accurately evaluating their performance. Findings suggest that students focused more on outcome-based rather than process-based assessments when evaluating their performance. Enhancing students’ access to both theoretical and experience-based cues in sports may improve their ability to accurately judge their performances and foster greater confidence in lifelong participation in physical activities. Full article

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20 pages, 265 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Social Physique Anxiety in College Students: The Role of Study Field, Physical Activity, Physical Self-Perception, and Self-Esteem

by Ioannis Tsartsapakis and Aglaia Zafeiroudi

Sports 2025, 13(4), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040119 - 14 Apr 2025

Abstract

Young adults, especially students, face challenges that increase social anxiety, including Social Physique Anxiety (SPA). The objective of the present study was to examine SPA among college students across various study programs and explore its associations with exercise, physical self-perception, and self-esteem. A [...] Read more.

Young adults, especially students, face challenges that increase social anxiety, including Social Physique Anxiety (SPA). The objective of the present study was to examine SPA among college students across various study programs and explore its associations with exercise, physical self-perception, and self-esteem. A total of 465 students, with an average age of 21.3 years, completed the Social Physique Anxiety Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and Physical Self-Perception Profile. Demographic information and exercise habits were also collected. The findings indicated that the subject of study was not associated with SPA, regardless of gender. Multiple regression analysis identified physical self-worth, self-esteem, and gender as variables associated with SPA among study groups. Higher levels of physical self-worth and self-esteem were linked to lower SPA levels, and gender had a significant association with SPA. These findings suggest that global and physical self-esteem may play important roles in SPA among college students. Promoting regular physical activity and fostering positive physical self-perception among college students, particularly females, could be beneficial in addressing SPA. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Physical Activity Interventions for Improving Depression, Anxiety and Distress)

14 pages, 1993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical and Physiological Demands of Official Beach Soccer Match-Play in Relation to Environmental Temperature

by Thiago Carvalho, Vincenzo Rago, João Brito, Priscyla Praxedes, Marco Abreu, Davi Silva, Sara Pereira, Magni Mohr, Ivan Baptista and José Afonso

Sports 2025, 13(4), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040118 - 14 Apr 2025

Abstract

Environmental temperature (T_e) is a main atmospheric parameter that may affect the physical and physiological demands of outdoor sports. Thus, this study aimed to examine the relationship of T_e with the physical and physiological demands of beach soccer match-play. Physical [...] Read more.

Environmental temperature (T_e) is a main atmospheric parameter that may affect the physical and physiological demands of outdoor sports. Thus, this study aimed to examine the relationship of T_e with the physical and physiological demands of beach soccer match-play. Physical and physiological demands were collected from 60 male players during Portuguese elite beach soccer championship matches using a 10 Hz wearable global positioning system, heart rate, and the rate of perceived exertion (RPE). A bilateral counter-movement jump (CMJ) test assessed lower limb power performance before and immediately after the match. Fluid loss was determined by body mass weighing before and after the end of the match. T_e and wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) parameters were continuously recorded. The matches occurred across T_e ranging from ~20.0 °C to 43.0 °C. Physical demands, CMJ height, peak heart rate (HR_peak), mean heart rate (HR_mean), and RPE were not correlated with T_e. However, a significant correlation was found between fluid loss and T_e (r [95% CIs] = 0.67 [0.43–0.75]; p < 0.001). Beach soccer players maintained physical performance independent of T_e. The specific characteristics of the sport may have promoted adequate thermoregulatory adaptations, helping maintain the players’ physical performance, particularly in matches played under high T_e conditions. Elite beach soccer players maintained their physical performance independently of T_e and despite experiencing dehydration (a body mass decrease of more than 2%) when the T_e exceeded 35 °C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)

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