Applying Quantum Cascade Laser Spectroscopy in Plasma Diagnostics
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Application of Pulsed QCLs in Low- and Atmospheric Pressure Plasmas
2.1. General Spectroscopic Issues
2.2. Methods for Determining Gas Temperatures in Plasmas
2.3. Study of Plasma Surface Interactions in Low-Pressure Plasmas
2.3.1. On the Reactivity of Plasma Treated Photo-Catalytic TiO2 Surfaces for Oxidation of C2H2 and CO
2.3.2. Surface Vibrational Relaxation of N2 Studied by Titration
2.4. Kinetic Studies of NO Formation in Pulsed Air-Like Low-Pressure dc Plasmas
2.5. Industrial Process Monitoring in Low-Pressure Plasmas
2.6. Plasma Chemistry Studies in Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Jets
2.6.1. On the Production of NO and N2O in a Microscale Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Jet
2.6.2. On the Dynamics of the NO2 Production of an Ar/Air Plasma Jet
3. Application of Continuous Wave QCLs
3.1. On Practical Silicon Deposition Rules Derived from Silane Monitoring
3.2. Monitoring of CF2 Concentrations as a Diagnostic Tool for Dielectric Etching Plasma Processes
4. Applications of External Cavity QCLs
4.1. Investigations of Plasma Nitriding and Nitrocarburizing Processes
4.2. Study of Low Pressure, Low Temperature H2-CH4-CO2 Microwave Plasmas Used for Large Area Deposition of Nanocrystalline Diamond Films
5. Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Röpcke, J.; Lombardi, G.; Rousseau, A.; Davies, P.B. Application of mid-infrared tuneable diode laser absorption spectroscopy to plasma diagnostics: A review. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2006, 5, S148–S168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Curl, R.F.; Capasso, F.; Gmachl, C.; Kostorev, A.A.; McManus, B.; Lewicki, R.; Pusharsky, M.; Wysocki, G.; Tittel, F.K. Quantum cascade lasers in chemical physics. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2010, 487, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Welzel, S.; Hempel, F.; Hübner, M.; Lang, N.; Davies, P.B.; Röpcke, J. Quantum Cascade Laser Absorption Spectroscopy as a Plasma Diagnostic Tool: An Overview. Sensors 2010, 10, 6861–6900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lang, N.; Zimmermann, S.; Uhlig, B.; Schaller, M.; Röpcke, J.; Schulz, S.E. In situ analysis of ultra low-k etch processes using quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy. In Proceedings of the 30th ICPIG, Belfast, UK, 28 August–2 September 2011.
- Guaitella, O.; Hübner, M.; Welzel, S.; Marinov, D.; Röpcke, J.; Rousseau, A. Evidence for surface oxidation on pyrex of NO into NO2 by adsorbed O atoms. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2010, 19, 045026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Röpcke, J.; Davies, P.B.; Lang, N.; Rousseau, A.; Welzel, S. Applications of quantum cascade lasers in plasma diagnostics: A review. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2012, 45, 423001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burlacov, I.; Börner, K.; Spies, H.-J.; Biermann, H.; Lopatik, D.; Zimmermann, H.; Röpcke, J. In-situ monitoring of plasma enhanced nitriding processes using infrared absorption and mass spectroscopy. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2012, 206, 3955–3960. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hempel, F.; Lopatik, D.; Sikimic, B.; Stefanovic, I.; Winter, J.; Röpcke, J. Monitoring of hydrocarbon concentrations in dust-producing RF plasmas. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2012, 21, 055001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stepanov, S.; Meichsner, J. Absolute number density and kinetic analysis of the CF radical in pulsed CF4 + H2 radio-frequency plasmas. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2012, 21, 024008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pipa, A.V.; Bindemann, T.; Foest, R.; Kindel, E.; Röpcke, J.; Weltmann, K.-D. Absolute production rate measurements of nitric oxide by an atmospheric pressure plasma jet (APPJ). J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2008, 41, 194011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Röpcke, J.; Mechold, L.; Käning, M.; Anders, J.; Wienhold, F.G.; Nelson, D.; Zahniser, M. IRMA: A tunable infrared multicomponent acquisition system for plasma diagnostics. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2000, 71, 3706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McManus, J.B.; Nelson, D.; Zahniser, M.; Mechold, L.; Osiac, M.; Röpcke, J.; Rousseau, A. TOBI: A two-laser beam infrared system for time-resolved plasma diagnostics of infrared active compounds. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2003, 74, 2709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kazarinov, R.F.; Suris, R.A. Possibility of the amplification of electromagnetic waves in a semiconductor with a superlattice. Sov. Phys. Semicond. 1971, 5, 707. [Google Scholar]
- Faist, J.; Capasso, F.; Sivco, D.L.; Sirtori, C.; Hutchinson, A.L.; Cho, A.Y. Quantum cascade laser. Science 1994, 264, 553–556. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hübner, M.; Welzel, S.; Marinov, D.; Guaitella, O.; Glitsch, S.; Rousseau, A.; Röpcke, J. TRIPLE Q: A three channel quantum cascade laser absorption spectrometer for fast multiple species concentration measurements. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2011, 82, 093102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shorter, J.H.; Nelson, D.D.; McManus, J.B.; Zahniser, M.S.; Milton, D.K. Multicomponent Breath Analysis with Infrared Absorption Using Room-Temperature Quantum Cascade Lasers. IEEE Sens. J. 2010, 10, 76–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hugi, A.; Maulini, R.; Faist, J. External cavity quantum cascade laser. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 2010, 25, 083001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walker, R.J.; van Helden, J.H.; Richie, G.A.D. Quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy of the 1←0 band of deuterium bromide at 5 µm. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2010, 501, 20–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karpf, A.; Rao, G.N. Enhancement of trace gas detection by integrating wavelength modulated spectra across multiple lines. Appl. Opt. 2010, 49, 1406–1413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Furstenberg, R.; Kendziora, C.A.; Stepnowski, J.; Stepnowski, S.V.; Rake, M.; Papantonakis, M.R.; Nguyen, V.; Hubler, G.K.; McGill, R.A. Stand-off detection of trace explosives via resonant infrared photothermal imaging. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2008, 93, 224103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karpf, A.; Rao, G.N. Absorption and wavelength modulation spectroscopy of NO2 using a tunable, external cavity continuous wave quantum cascade laser. Appl. Opt. 2009, 48, 408–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lewicki, R.; Doty, J.H., III; Curl, R.F.; Tittel, F.K.; Wysocki, G. Ultrasensitive detection of nitric oxide at 5.33 µm by using external cavity quantum cascade laser-based Faraday rotation spectroscopy. PNAS 2009, 106, 12587–12592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cheesman, A.; Smith, J.A.; Ashfold, M.N.R.; Langford, N.; Wright, S.; Duxbury, G. Application of a Quantum Cascade Laser for Time-Resolved, in Situ Probing of CH4/H2 and C2H2/H2 Gas Mixtures during Microwave Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition of Diamond. J. Phys. Chem. A 2006, 110, 2821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Welzel, S.; Gatilova, L.; Röpcke, J.; Rousseau, A. Time-resolved study of a pulsed dc discharge using quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy: NO and gas temperature kinetics. Plasma. Sources Sci. Technol. 2007, 16, 822. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stancu, G.D.; Lang, N.; Röpcke, J.; Reinicke, M.; Steinbach, A.; Wege, S. In Situ Monitoring of Silicon Plasma Etching Using a Quantum Cascade Laser Arrangement. Chem. Vapor. Depos. 2007, 13, 351–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Helden, J.H.; Horrocks, S.J.; Ritchie, G.A.D. Application of quantum cascade lasers in studies of low-pressure plasmas: Characterization of rapid passage effects on density and temperature measurements. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2008, 92, 081506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hancock, G.; Horrocks, S.J.; Ritchie, G.A.D.; van Helden, J.H.; Walker, R.J. Time-Resolved Detection of the CF3 Photofragment Using Chirped QCL Radiation. J. Phys. Chem. A 2008, 112, 9751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Quine, Z.R.; McNesby, K.L. Acetylene measurement in flames by chirp-based quantum cascade laser spectrometry. Appl. Opt. 2009, 48, 3075–3083. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lang, N.; Röpcke, J.; Steinbach, A.; Wege, S. Wafer2wafer etch monitor via in situ QCLAS. IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 2009, 37, 2335–2341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, J.; Cheesman, A.; Ashfold, M.N.R.; Hay, K.G.; Wright, S.; Langford, N.; Duxbury, G.; Mankelevich, Y.A. Quantum cascade laser investigations of CH4 and C2H2 interconversion in hydrocarbon/H2 gas mixtures during microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition of diamond. J. Appl. Phys. 2009, 106, 033305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bartlome, R.; Feltrin, A.; Ballif, C. Infrared laser-based monitoring of the silane dissociation during deposition of silicon thin films. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2009, 94, 201501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hempel, F.; Artyushenko, V.; Weichbrodt, F.; Röpcke, J. Application of quantum cascade lasers and infrared-fibres for the monitoring and control of industrial plasma processes. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2009, 157, 012003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abd Allah, Z.; Sawtell, D.; Kasytich, V.L.; Martin, P.A. FTIR and QCL diagnostics of the decomposition of volatile organic compounds in an atmospheric pressure dielectric packed bed plasma reactor. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2009, 157, 012010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Welzel, S.; Stepanov, S.; Meichsner, J.; Röpcke, J. Using quantum cascade lasers with resonant optical cavities as a diagnostic tool. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2009, 157, 012010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stepanov, S.; Welzel, S.; Röpcke, J.; Meichsner, J. Time resolved QCLAS measurements in pulsed cc-rf CF4/H2 plasmas. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2009, 157, 012008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Welzel, S.; Stepanov, S.; Meichsner, J.; Röpcke, J. Time resolved studies on pulsed fluorocarbon plasmas using chirped quantum cascade lasers. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2010, 43, 124014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lang, N.; Röpcke, J.; Wege, S.; Steinbach, A. In situ diagnostic of etch plasmas for process control using quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy. Eur. Phys. J. Appl. Phys. 2010, 49, 13110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hempel, F.; Lang, N.; Zimmermann, H.; Strämke, S.; Röpcke, J. Plasma process monitoring of BCl3 using high-resolution infrared laser absorption spectroscopy. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2010, 21, 085703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wolter, M.; Hundt, M.; Kersten, H. Measurement of CH4-concentration in HMDSO-containing process plasmas by quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy. Vacuum 2010, 85, 482–485. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hundt, M.; Sadler, P.; Levchenko, I.; Wolter, M.; Kersten, H.; Ostrikov, K. Real-time monitoring of nucleation-growth cycle of carbon nanoparticles in acetylene plasmas. J. Appl. Phys. 2011, 109, 123305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zimmermann, S.; Ahner, N.; Blaschta, F.; Schaller, M.; Zimmermann, H.; Rülke, H.; Lang, N.; Röpcke, J.; Schulz, S.E.; Gessner, T. Influence of the additives Argon, O2, C4F8, H2, N2 and CO on plasma conditions and process results during the etch of SiCOH in CF4 plasma. Microelectron. Eng. 2011, 88, 671–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lang, N.; Hempel, F.; Strämke, S.; Röpcke, J. Time-resolved quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy of pulsed plasma assisted chemical vapor deposition processes containing BCl3. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 2011, 50, 08JB04. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Baby, A.; Mahony, C.M.O.; Maguire, P.D. Acetylene-argon plasmas measured at a biased substrate electrode for diamond-like carbon deposition: I. Mass spectrometry. Plasma Sources. Sci. Technol. 2011, 20, 015003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guaitella, O.; Hübner, M.; Marinov, D.; Guerra, V.; Pintassilgo, C.D.; Welzel, S.; Röpcke, J.; Rousseau, A. Oxidation of NO into NO2 by Surface Adsorbed O Atoms. Contrib. Plasma Phys. 2011, 51, 176–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Welzel, S.; Guaitella, O.; Lazzaroni, C.; Pintassilgo, C.D.; Rousseau, A.; Röpcke, J. NO kinetics in pulsed low-pressure plasmas studied by time-resolved quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy. J. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2011, 20, 015020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marinov, D.; Lopatik, D.; Guaitella, O.; Hübner, M.; Ionikh, Y.; Röpcke, J.; Rousseau, A. Surface vibrational relaxation of N2 studied by CO2 titration with time-resolved quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2012, 45, 175201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reuter, S.; Winter, J.; Iseni, S.; Peters, S.; Schmidt-Bleker, A.; Dünnbier, M.; Schäfer, J.; Foest, R.; Weltmann, K.-D. Detection of ozone in a MHz argon plasma bullet jet. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2012, 21, 034015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lopatik, D.; Niemietz, S.; Fröhlich, M.; Röpcke, J.; Kersten, H. Plasma Chemical Study of a RF Discharge Containing Aluminum Tri-Isoproxide Using MIR Absorption Spectroscopy Based on External-Cavity Quantum Cascade Lasers. Contrib. Plasma Phys. 2012, 52, 864–871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lopatik, D.; Lang, N.; Macherius, U.; Zimmermann, H.; Röpcke, J. On the application of cw external cavity quantum cascade infrared lasers for plasma diagnostics. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2012, 23, 115501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hübner, M.; Marinov, D.; Guaitella, O.; Rousseau, A.; Röpcke, J. On time resolved gas temperature measurements in a pulsed dc plasma using quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy. Meas. Sci. Technol. 2012, 23, 115602. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lopatik, D.; Marinov, D.; Guaitella, O.; Rousseau, A.; Röpcke, J. On the reactivity of plasma-treated photo-catalytic TiO2 surfaces for oxidation of C2H2 and CO. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2013, 46, 255203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marinov, D.; Lopatik, D.; Guaitella, O.; Ionikh, Y.; Röpcke, J.; Rousseau, A. Surface deactivation of vibrationally excited N2 studied using infrared titration combined with quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2014, 47, 015203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yumii, T.; Kimura, N.; Hamaguchi, S. Quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy with the amplitude-to-time conversion technique for atmospheric-pressure plasmas. J. Appl. Phys. 2013, 113, 213101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Iseni, S.; Reuter, S.; Weltmann, K.-D. NO2 dynamics of an Ar/Air plasma jet investigated by in situ quantum cascade laser spectroscopy at atmospheric pressure. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2014, 47, 075203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ouaras, K.; Delacqua, L.C.; Lombardi, G.; Röpcke, J.; Wartel, M.; Bonnin, X.; Redolfi, M.; Hassouni, K. In-situ diagnostics of hydrocarbon dusty plasmas using quantum cascade laser absorption spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. J. Plasma Phys. 2014, 80, 833–841. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reuter, S.; Winter, J.; Iséni, S.; Schmidt-Bleker, A.; Dünnbier, M.; Masur, K.; Wende, K.; Weltmann, K.-D. The influence of feed gas humidity versus ambient humidity on atmospheric pressure plasma jet-effluent chemistry and skin cell viability. IEEE Trans. Plasmas Sci. 2015, 43, 3185–3192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bartlome, R.; de Wolf, S.; Demaurex, B.; Ballif, C.; Amanatides, E.; Mataras, D. Practical silicon deposition rules derived from silane monitoring during plasma-enhanced chemical vapor depositiona. J. Appl. Phys. 2015, 117, 203303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lang, N.; Zimmermann, S.; Zimmermann, H.; Macherius, U.; Uhlig, B.; Schaller, M.; Schulz, S.E.; Röpcke, J. On treatment of ultra-low-k SiCOH in CF4 plasmas: Correlation between the concentration of etching products and etching rate. Appl. Phys. B 2015, 119, 219–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hübner, M.; Lang, N.; Zimmermann, S.; Schulz, S.E.; Buchholtz, W.; Röpcke, J.; van Helden, J.H. Quantum cascade laser based monitoring of CF2 radical concentration as a diagnostic tool of dielectric etching plasma processes. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2015, 106, 031102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reuter, S.; Sousa, J.S.; Stancu, G.D.; van Helden, J.H. Review on VUV to MIR absorption spectroscopy of atmospheric pressure plasma jets. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2015, 24, 054001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Gaens, W.; Iseni, S.; Schmidt-Bleker, A.; Weltmann, K.-D.; Reuter, S.; Bogaerts, A. Numerical analysis of the effect of nitrogen and oxygen admixtures on the chemistry of an argon plasma jet operating at atmospheric pressure. New J. Phys. 2015, 17, 033003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hamann, S.; Börner, K.; Burlacov, I.; Spies, H.-J.; Röpcke, J. Spectroscopic investigations of plasma nitriding and nitrocarburizing processes using an active screen: A comparative plasma chemical study of two reactor types. Contrib. Plasma Phys. 2015, 55, 689–700. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hamann, S.; Börner, K.; Burlacov, I.; Spies, H.-J.; Strämke, M.; Strämke, S.; Röpcke, J. Plasma nitriding monitoring reactor: A model reactor for studying plasma nitriding processes using an active screen. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2015, 86, 123503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hübner, M.; Gorchakow, S.; Guaitella, O.; Marinov, D.; Rousseau, A.; Röpcke, J.; Loffhagen, D. Kinetic studies of NO formation in pulsed air-like low-pressure dc plasmas. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2016, 25, 035005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Douat, C.; Hübner, S.; Engeln, R.; Benedikt, J. Production of nitric/nitrous oxide by an atmospheric pressure plasma jet. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2016, 25, 025027. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nave, A.S.C.; Baudrillart, B.; Hamann, S.; Bénédic, F.; Lombardi, G.; Gicquel, A.; van Helden, J.H.; Röpcke, J. Spectroscopic study of low pressure, low temperature H2-CH4-CO2 microwave plasmas used for large area deposition of nanocrystalline diamond films, Part I: On temperature determination and energetic aspects. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2016. submitted. [Google Scholar]
- Nave, A.S.C.; Baudrillart, B.; Hamann, S.; Bénédic, F.; Lombardi, G.; Gicquel, A.; van Helden, J.H.; Röpcke, J. Spectroscopic study of low pressure, low temperature H2-CH4-CO2 microwave plasmas used for large area deposition of nanocrystalline diamond films, Part II: On plasma chemical processes. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2016. submitted. [Google Scholar]
- Nave, A.S.C.; Mitschker, F.; Awakowicz, P.; Röpcke, J. Spectroscopic studies of microwave plasmas containing hexamethyldisiloxane. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2016. submitted. [Google Scholar]
- Namjou, K.; Cai, S.; Whittaker, E.A.; Faist, J.; Gmachl, C.; Capasso, F.; Sivco, D.L.; Cho, A.Y. Sensitive absorption spectroscopy with a room-temperature distributed-feedback quantum-cascade laser. Opt. Lett. 1998, 23, 219–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gmachl, C.; Capasso, F.; Sivco, D.L.; Cho, A.Y. Recent progress in quantum cascade lasers and applications. Rep. Prog. Phys. 2001, 64, 1533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Normand, E.; McCulloch, M.; Duxbury, G.; Langford, N. Fast, real-time spectrometer based on a pulsed quantum-cascade laser. Opt. Lett. 2003, 28, 16–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Beyer, T.; Braun, M.; Lambrecht, A. Fast gas spectroscopy using pulsed quantum cascade lasers. J. Appl. Phys. 2003, 93, 3158–3160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fischer, M.; Tuzon, B.; Hugi, A.; Brönnimann, R.; Kunz, A.; Blaser, S.; Rochat, M.; Landry, O.; Müller, A. Intermittent operation of QC-lasers for mid-IR spectroscopy with low heat dissipation: Tuning characteristics and driving electronics. Opt. Express 2014, 22, 7014–7027. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nelson, D.D.; McManus, J.B.; Urbanski, S.; Herndon, S.; Zahniser, M.S. High precision measurements of atmospheric nitrous oxide and methane using thermoelectrically cooled mid-infrared quantum cascade lasers and detectors. Spectrochim. Acta A 2004, 60, 3325–3335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McCulloch, M.T.; Normand, E.L.; Langford, N.; Duxbury, G.; Newnham, D.A. Highly sensitive detection of trace gases using the time-resolved frequency downchirp from pulsed quantum-cascade lasers. J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 2003, 20, 1761–1768. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kosterev, A.A.; Tittel, F.K.; Gmachl, C.; Capasso, F.; Sivco, D.L.; Baillargeon, J.N.; Hutchinson, A.L.; Cho, A.Y. Trace-gas detection in ambient air with a thermoelectrically cooled, pulsed quantum-cascade distributed feedback laser. Appl. Opt. 2000, 39, 6866–6872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sonnenfroh, D.M.; Rawlins, W.T.; Allen, M.G.; Gmachl, C.; Capasso, F.; Hutchinson, A.L.; Sivco, D.L.; Baillargeon, J.N.; Cho, A.Y. Application of balanced detection to absorption measurements of trace gases with room-temperature, quasi-cw quantum-cascade lasers. Appl. Opt. 2001, 40, 812–820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McCulloch, M.T.; Duxbury, G.; Langford, N. Observation of saturation and rapid passage signals in the 10.25 micron spectrum of ethylene using a frequency chirped quantum cascade laser. Mol. Phys. 2006, 104, 2767–2779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Welzel, S.; Röpcke, J. Non-symmetrical line broadening effects using short-pulse QCL spectrometers as determined with sub-nanosecond time-resolution. Appl. Phys. B 2011, 102, 303–311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Capitelli, M.; Ferreira, C.M.; Gordiets, B.F.; Osipov, A.I. Plasma Kinetics in Atmospheric Gases; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Röpcke, J.; Davies, P.B.; Hempel, F.; Lavrov, B.P. Emission and absorption spectroscopy. In Low Temperature Plasmas—Fundamentals, Technologies and Techniques, 2nd ed.; Hippler, R., Kersten, H., Schmidt, M., Schoenbach, K.H., Eds.; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2008; Volume 1, pp. 215–242. [Google Scholar]
- Allen, M.G. Diode laser absorption sensors for gas-dynamic and combustion flows. Meas. Sci. Technol. 1998, 9, 545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Q-MACSoft-HT. Available online: http://www.neoplas-control.de/ (accessed on 22 June 2016).
- Rousseau, A.; Guaitella, O.; Röpcke, J.; Gatilova, L.V.; Tolmachev, Y.A. Combination of a pulsed microwave plasma with a catalyst for acetylene oxidation. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2004, 85, 2199–2201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rousseau, A.; Gatilova, L.V.; Guaitella, O.; Guillard, C.; Thevenet, F.; Röpcke, J.; Stancu, G. Photocatalyst activation in a pulsed low pressure discharge. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2005, 87, 221501. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rousseau, A.; Meshchanov, A.V.; Röpcke, J. Evidence of plasma-catalyst synergy in a low-pressure discharge. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2006, 88, 021503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guaitella, O.; Thevenet, F.; Guillard, C.; Rousseau, A. Dynamic of the plasma current amplitude in a barrier discharge: Influence of photocatalytic material. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2006, 39, 2964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guaitella, O.; Thevenet, F.; Puzenat, E.; Guillard, C.; Rousseau, A. C2H2 oxidation by plasma/TiO2 combination: Influence of the porosity, and photocatalytic mechanisms under plasma exposure. Appl. Catal. B 2008, 80, 296–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guaitella, O.; Lazzaroni, C.; Marinov, D.; Rousseau, A. Evidence of atomic adsorption on TiO2 under plasma exposure and related C2H2 surface reactivity. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2010, 97, 011502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pintassilgo, C.D.; Guerra, V.; Guaitella, O.; Rousseau, A. Modelling of an afterglow plasma in air produced by a pulsed discharge. Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 2010, 19, 055001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Gessel, A.F.H.; Alards, K.M.J.; Bruggemann, P.J. NO production in an RF plasma jet at atmospheric pressure. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2013, 46, 265202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Daylight Solutions, User. Manual, Rev. A, 2009. Available online: www.daylightsolutions.com (accessed on 22 June 2016).
Species | Spectral Range (cm−1) | Type of Plasma | Application 1 | Pressure (mbar) 2 | Type of QCL | Tuning Method | Method of Absorpt 3 | Time Resolution | Year | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CH4 | ~1275 | MW | Res. | >50 | pulsed | intra | DAS/SP | 1 s | 2006 | [23] |
NO | 1897 | DC | Res. | 2.7 | pulsed | intra | DAS/SP | 5 µs | 2007 | [24] |
SiF4 | 1028 | RF | Ind. | 0.33 | pulsed | inter | DAS/DP | ~1 s | 2007 | [25] |
CH4 | 1253 | RF | Res. | 0.23 | pulsed | intra | DAS/SP | n.a. | 2008 | [26] |
CF3 | 1253 | Photolysis | Res. | 2.6 ... 5.4 | pulsed | intra | DAS/SP | 5 µs | 2008 | [27] |
C2H2 | ~1275 | Flame | Res. | 1013 | pulsed | intra | DAS/SP | n.a. | 2009 | [28] |
NF3 | 1028 | RF | Ind. | 0.33 | pulsed | inter | DAS/DP | ~1 s | 2009 | [29] |
C2H2 | ~1275 | MW | Res. | 199.5 | pulsed | intra | DAS/SP | 1 s | 2009 | [30] |
SiH4 | 2244 | VHF 4 | Res. (Ind.) | 3.5 ... 4.5 | cw | DAS/SP | n.a. | 2009 | [31] | |
BCl3 | 964 | MW | Res. | 2 | pulsed | inter | DAS/DP | 3 s | 2009 | [32] |
NO | 1900 | DPBPR 5 | Res. | 1013.25 | cw | DAS/SP | >1 s | 2009 | [33] | |
CF4 | 1271 | RF | Res. | 0.1 | pulsed | intra | DAS/DP | 5 ms | 2009 | [34,35,36] |
C3F8 | 1274 | 2010 | ||||||||
SiF4 | 1028 | MW | Res. (Ind.) | 0.2 ... 0.3 | pulsed | inter | DAS/DP | 1 s | 2010 | [37] |
C4F6 | 973 | pulsed | ||||||||
CH4 | 1303 | MW | Res. | 1.5 | cw | DAS/SP | 0.2 s | 2010 | [3] | |
HCN | 1304 | MW | Res. | 1.5 | cw | CEAS | >1 s | 2010 | [3] | |
NO | 1819 | MW | Res. | 1.5 | cw | CEAS | >1 s | 2010 | [3] | |
BCl3 | 964 | DC | Ind. | 2 | pulsed | inter | DAS/DP | 3 s | 2010 | [38] |
NO | 1897 | RF | Res. | 0.53 | pulsed | intra | DAS/SP | >1 s | 2010 | [5] |
NO2 | 1612 | |||||||||
CH4 | 1343 | RF | Res. | 0.1 | pulsed | inter | DAS/DP | >1 s | 2010 | [39] |
C2H2 | 1344 | RF | Res. | 0.055 | pulsed | inter | DAS/DP | >1 s | 2011 | [40] |
CO | 2078 | ICP-RF | Ind. | 0.009 | pulsed | inter | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2011 | [41] |
COF2 | ? | |||||||||
SiF4 | 1031 | |||||||||
BCl3 | 9635 | DC | Ind. | 2 | pulsed | inter | DAS/SP | <1 s | 2011 | [42] |
N2O | 2207 | DC | Res. | 1.33 | pulsed | intra | DAS/SP | <1 μs | 2011 | [15] |
NO | 1900 | |||||||||
NO2 | 1615 | |||||||||
CH4 | 1343 | ICP-RF | Res. | 0.43 | pulsed | inter | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2011 | [43] |
C2H2 | 1344 | |||||||||
NO | 1897 | DC | Res. | 0.53 | pulsed | intra | DAS/SP | >1 s | 2011 | [44] |
NO2 | 1612 | |||||||||
NO | 1897 | DC | Res. | 2.66 | pulsed | intra | DAS/DP | <1 μs | 2011 | [45] |
CO2 | 2325 | DC | Res. | 1.33 | pulsed | intra | DAS/DP | <1 μs | 2012 | [46] |
O3 | 1027 | VHF 4 | Res. | 1013.25 | pulsed | inter | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2012 | [47] |
CH4 | 1333 | RF | Res. | 0.06 | EC | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2012 | [48] | |
C2H2 | 1333 | |||||||||
C2H4 | 1413 | |||||||||
H2O | 1375 | |||||||||
HCN | 1383 | |||||||||
HNO3 | 1333 | |||||||||
CH4 | 1381 | MW | Res. | 0.5 | EC | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2012 | [49] | |
C2H2 | 1333 | |||||||||
H2O | 1375 | |||||||||
HCN | 1383 | |||||||||
NO | 1900 | DC | Res. | 1.33 | pulsed | DAS/DP | <1 μs | 2012 | [50] | |
C2H2 | 1345 | DC | Res. | 2.6 | pulsed | intra | DAS/DP | >1 s | 2013 | [51] |
CO | 2206 | |||||||||
CO2 | 2329 | |||||||||
CO | 2143 | DC | Res. | 1.33 | pulsed | intra | DAS/DP | <1 μs | 2013 | [52] |
CO2 | 2349 | |||||||||
N2O | 2224 | |||||||||
NO2 | 1641 | VHF 4 | Res. | 1013.25 | pulsed | ATTC 6 | DAS/SP | <1 μs | 2013 | [53] |
NO2 | 1612 | VHF 4 | Res. | 1013.25 | pulsed | inter | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2014 | [54] |
CH4 | 1347 | VHF 4 | Res. | 0.003 | cw | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2014 | [55] | |
C2H2 | ||||||||||
O3 | 1027 | VHF 4 | Res. | 1013.25 | pulsed | inter | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2015 | [56] |
SiH4 | 2244 | VHF 4 | Res. (Ind.) | 3.5 ... 4.5 | cw | DAS/SP | n.a. | 2015 | [57] | |
CO | 2078 | ICP-RF | Ind. | 0.009 | pulsed | inter | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2015 | [58] |
SiF4 | 1031 | |||||||||
CF2 | 1106 | ICP-RF | Ind. | 0.0133 | cw | DAS/MP | <1 s | 2015 | [59] | |
O3 | 1027 | VHF 4 | Res. | 1013.25 | pulsed | inter | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2015 | [60] |
NO2 | 1612 | |||||||||
O3 | 1027 | VHF 4 | Res. | 1013.25 | pulsed | inter | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2015 | [61] |
NO2 | 1612 | |||||||||
CH4 | 1356 | DC | Res. | 3 | EC | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2015 | [62] | |
C2H2 | 1357 | |||||||||
HCN | 1388 | |||||||||
NH3 | 1388 | |||||||||
CH4 | 1356 | DC | Res. | 3 | EC | DAS/MP | >1 s | 2015 | [63] | |
C2H2 | 1357 | |||||||||
HCN | 1388 | |||||||||
NH3 | 1388 | |||||||||
NO | 2207 | DC | Res. | 1.33 | pulsed | intra | DAS/DP | <1 μs | 2016 | [64] |
NO2 | 1900 | |||||||||
N2O | 1615 | |||||||||
NO | 1903 | RF | Res. | 1013.25 | pulsed | intra | DAS/MP | <1 μs | 2016 | [65] |
N2O | 2213 | |||||||||
CO | 2197 | MW | Res. | 0.25–0.55 | EC | DAS/MP | <1 s | 2016 | [66] | |
CO | 2197 | MW | Res. | 0.25–0.55 | EC | DAS/MP | <1 s | 2016 | [67] | |
CO | 2147 | MW | Res. | 0.25–0.5 | EC | DAS/MP | <1 s | 2016 | [68] |
Phase No. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Phase Name | Pre-Treatment (Plasma Activation) | Evacuation | Filling and Adsorption | After-Treatment (Stimulated Oxidation) | |||
Sub-Phase Name | Heating 350 °C | UV radiation | |||||
Precursor Gas | O2 | N2 | Ar | 1% C2H2 or 1% CO in Ar | Ar Buffer | ||
Pressure (mbar) | 1.25 | 0.75 | 0.26 | Pumping | 1.3–6.6 | 2.6 | |
Duration (min) | 10–30 | 10–30 | 10–20 | 10 | 5–30 | 25 | 35 |
Flowing (FC) or Static (SC) Conditions | FC | FC | FC | SC | SC |
© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Röpcke, J.; Davies, P.B.; Hamann, S.; Hannemann, M.; Lang, N.; Van Helden, J.-P.H. Applying Quantum Cascade Laser Spectroscopy in Plasma Diagnostics. Photonics 2016, 3, 45. https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics3030045
Röpcke J, Davies PB, Hamann S, Hannemann M, Lang N, Van Helden J-PH. Applying Quantum Cascade Laser Spectroscopy in Plasma Diagnostics. Photonics. 2016; 3(3):45. https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics3030045
Chicago/Turabian StyleRöpcke, Jürgen, Paul B. Davies, Stephan Hamann, Mario Hannemann, Norbert Lang, and Jean-Pierre H. Van Helden. 2016. "Applying Quantum Cascade Laser Spectroscopy in Plasma Diagnostics" Photonics 3, no. 3: 45. https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics3030045