1. Introduction
Developments in sheet metals that lead to increasing strength for every generation of sheet metals put high demands on cold work tool steels. Mechanical properties such as high hardness and good toughness are essential for tool steels to withstand the stresses that are generated when forming stronger sheet materials. Tool steels manufactured by the powder metallurgy (PM) manufacturing route have fine and evenly distributed hard phase particles in a relatively tough matrix. Tool steel manufacturers commonly govern steel properties to meet the required demands by combining a hard phase and tough matrix [
1,
2,
3].
Several studies have prevailed that a higher volume fraction of the hard phase in the tool steel will enhance its resistance to galling and improve its wear characteristics in general [
4,
5,
6,
7]. However, it was later shown that the volume fraction of the hard phase should not exceed 30% since it reduces the machinability of the tools. It also decreases the tool’s toughness and thereby negatively affects its fatigue strength [
8]. In recent decades, the introduction of nitrogen as an alloying element into PM tool steels gained attention from tool steel makers. Nitrogen works as a substitute for the carbon and leads to the formation of primary carbonitrides in the steel matrix. Commonly, high nitrogen content in PM tools is obtained by solid-state nitriding of the steel powder before capsulation. Carbonitrides are generally very fine participates distributed evenly in the tool steel matrix, and, therefore, they contribute to an enhanced toughness of tool steels. Moreover, the carbonitrides have a lower tendency to adhesion during sliding contact and, thus, have a significant impact on the galling and adhesive wear resistance of the tools steels [
4,
5,
9].
Advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) that have an extremely high ultimate tensile strength and limited ductility have introduced challenges in sheet metal-forming applications. Hence, forming AHSS sheets require high press loads to deform or cut them into a final shape. The high press loads result in tough contact conditions between the tool and the work material that often accelerate wear and fatigue damages of the used tools [
10]. Wear of tools in cold forming is one of the main concerns since worn tools deteriorate the tolerances, shape, and surface finish of the produced parts. Therefore, worn tools have to be refurbished or replaced by new ones. However, refurbishing worn tools or replacing them leads to production stop and maintenance work, thereby increasing production costs [
11]. For that reason, tools with enhanced wear resistance are highly necessary for cold forming.
The wear presented in cold forming results from repeated contact between the tools and work material, and it leads to surface damages of the used tools and deteriorates the quality of the produced part [
11,
12,
13]. Galling is considered the most common wear mechanism in sheet metal forming. It involves the transfer of work material to the tool surface during the contact between them [
14,
15]. The galling phenomenon has been widely investigated, and it is subdivided into three stages: The first stage is the initiation of material transfer from the softer surface to the harder, often from the work material to the tool surface. At this stage, the material transfer rate is low, and the sliding contact is between the tool and work material. The second stage is the accumulation of the transferred material. During this stage, the material transfer rate is much higher than in the first stage. In the course of repeated contact, the transferred material is work-hardened and ploughs through the work material, picking up more material and creating microscopic scratches on the workpiece surface. Finally, during the last stage, the transferred material forms macroscopic lumps that result in a high and unstable level of friction between contacting surfaces [
4,
5,
16,
17]. Depending on the amount of transferred material, macroscopic scratches can be formed on the produced part, consequently deteriorating its surface and its tolerances. At this point, the surface of the tool is not suitable for further forming process [
18].
Material transfer to the tool surface provokes fatigue crack initiation and propagation [
19]. Fatigue is a critical and life-limiting phenomenon for punches used in cold forming. D. D. Olsson et al. [
20] have investigated the development of pick-up material on the punch surface. It has been reported that the amount of pick-up on the punch surface increases with an increasing number of strokes. Furthermore, the development of pick-ups increased the backstroke force significantly. Therefore, contact stresses at the punch surface locally intensified, and, in many cases, the fatigue strength of the tool material locally exceeded that which resulted in the initiation and propagation of cracks. This means that material transfer to the punch surface will change the surface condition of the tool and thereby influence the quality of the produced part. Moreover, an extensive material transfer will intensify contact stresses at the tool surface during punching. Depending on how high stresses are generated, fatigue crack initiation and growth might take place at the surface. Crack growth due to repeated contact will result in either local failure of the punch (chipping) or total failure. Commonly, the fatigue failure of the tool initiates with the nucleation of microscopic cracks that propagate during further forming process [
21]. The fatigue life prediction of tools is difficult because the tool material is subjected to alternating stress conditions as a result of a combined effect of wear and cyclic loads. In order to improve the fatigue life of tools in cold forming, a thorough understanding of material properties such as microstructure and its response to cyclic loading is essential. Therefore, cold forming tools have to be designed carefully concerning their toughness and hardness.
The present study aimed to investigate the influence of the microstructure of three powder metallurgical tool steels, Vancron SuperClean, Vancron 40 and Vanadis 8 SuperClean on their tribological performance in punching applications. To evaluate galling resistance and wear characteristics of these tool steels, dry and lubricated sliding tests were performed. Finally, semi-industrial punching tests were performed to evaluate the tested tool steels under conditions closest to the real application. To fulfill the aims of the present study, two different testing methods were utilized, a slider-on-flat-surface tribotester, and a semi-industrial punching test method. The evaluation of the tool steels’ resistance to galling and fatigue cracking was performed by using advanced high-strength steel sheets.
4. Discussion
Wear and fatigue are life-limiting mechanisms for punches used in cold forming applications. In many cases, these two damage mechanisms might take place simultaneously, resulting in a synergetic effect that leads to a catastrophic failure of the punches. Therefore, it is important to take the resistance of a material to wear and its ability to withstand cyclic loads into consideration when designing cold forming tools. In the present study, it was found to be of interest to investigate the galling, wear, and fatigue characteristics of a newly developed cold work tool steel, VSC. The Uddeholm Vancron SuperClean cold work tool steel was designed with help of ThermoCalc calculations to contain a high amount of a carbonitride phase, which was suggested to improve tribological performance and wear resistance of this tool steel.
Two other cold work tool steels, V40 and V8SC, were also investigated in the present work. The results regarding galling resistance of the tested tool steels showed that the critical sliding distance to galling decreased with increased contact pressure, as shown in
Figure 7. The influence of contact pressures on galling occurrence in cold forming has been studied by other researchers [
2,
7,
12,
13,
14,
15]. It has been reported that the galling resistance of tool steels can be improved by decreasing the contact pressure between the tool and the work material surfaces [
7]. Nevertheless, when forming AHSS sheets, high contact pressures are not avoidable due to the high strength of these steel grades [
2,
14]. Therefore, material transfer and eventually galling cannot be prevented in the cold forming of AHSS. However, adequate knowledge about the selection of proper tool steel for a particular application is the key to reducing galling related problems in the application. The presented results showed that the tool steels with carbonitrides VCN had better resistance to galling compared to the tool steel containing VC carbides. This behavior was pronounced for the sliding tests performed at contact pressures up to 1.5 GPa, as shown in
Figure 7. At contact pressures higher than 1.5 GPa, the critical sliding distance to galling was short for all the three tested tool steels. Therefore, the trend of better galling resistance for the tool steels with VCN was less pronounced.
Galling is the result of material transfer from one surface to another when the surfaces are exposed to the relative motion under certain pressures. The galling phenomenon is sensitive to many factors such as microstructure and properties of the contacting surfaces, roughness, temperature, the chemical composition in the interface between surfaces, etc. [
6,
7,
15,
27,
28]. In the present work, it was found to be of high importance to eliminate factors that affect the transfer of material between contacting surfaces such as lubrication and roughness. Therefore, the galling tests were performed in the dry contact condition. Moreover, the discs’ surfaces were polished to a mirror-like surface, around Ra = 0.06 µm, in order to eliminate any extensive initial ploughing of sheet material caused by tool surface roughness. In an earlier study, it was reported that the tool surface has different morphologies at the nano-scale depending on the type of hard phases presented in the tool matrix. It has also been revealed that even a nano-scale roughness has a significant impact on galling. Hence, the nano-scaled protrusions plough through the sheet surface, displacing or picking up material at the sheet surface [
5]. P Karlsson et al. [
29] measured the height of the hard phase protrusions using an atomic force microscope. They found that VCN particles protrude up to a 25 nm in height, while M
6C and VC protrude up to about 5 nm. They suggested that at low contact pressures, the real contact is between these protrusions and the sheet material, and the protruding hard phase particles are the main elements that pick up sheet material. During sliding contact, the protrusions plough through the sheet material, and a pick-up material around the protrusions occurs. According to this statement, the more and the higher protrusions, the higher amount of transferred material. However, in the present study, it was found that the tool steels that contain VCN have less tendency to pick up sheet material. This trend was more significant at lower contact pressures. As the contact pressure increased, the tendency of sheet material to stick to the tool surface became similar for all the tested tool steels. It is believed that at low contact pressures, the real contact is between the tool surface protrusions and sheet material, but this does not mean that every protrusion will contribute to the pick-up of the sheet material. The protrusion might plough through the sheet surface and displace material, leaving behind micro-scratches. It seems that the chemical composition of the hard phase that affects the affinity of sheet material to stick to it is more critical than its height. I. Hekkilä et al [
4] studied the frictional behavior of different hard phases commonly presented in tool steels. They found that the VC particles led to higher frictional forces than the VCN particles. This is in good agreement with the experimental results observed in the present study. From the galling diagram, it is seen that V8SC has a shorter critical sliding distance to galling than the V40 and VSC. The V8SC steel contains VC particles that probably contributed to higher frictional forces between the tool and the sheet material, and thereby a higher rate of material transfer to the tool surface was obtained.
Other factors that have contributed to a better galling resistance found for V40 and VSC in the present work are the particle size and distance between them. It is well-known from earlier studies that smaller hard phase particles in a tool steel and shorter distance between them improve galling resistance [
2]. The measurements of the particle size showed that the carbonitride VCN phase had the smallest size compared to the other carbides, M
6C and MC. M
6C presented in V40 had the largest size, 1.4 µm. However, the volume fraction of M
6C in V40 was only 6%, that is, the dominant hard phase in V40 was not M
6C, but it was VCN that had the smallest size of 0.81 µm. The number of hard phase particles and their size determines the distance between the particles. V40, due to its highest volume fraction of the hard phase of 20%, had the shortest distance between its particles (2.33 µm) followed by VSC, where the average distance between particles was 2.37 µm. The small VCN particles presented in V40 and VSC and the short space between them can be associated directly with their good resistance to galling. VSC compared to V40 had a lower volume fraction of the hard phase (16%) and still had almost the same average distance between the hard phase particles as in V40. This is due to the small size of VCN particles in VSC. V8SC that showed a lower galling resistance had a longer average distance between its particles, with a particle mean size of 1.2 µm.
With the occurrence of galling, the material accumulation takes place more rapidly, and complex tribological situations arise between contacting surfaces. Therefore, in the present work, it was found of great interest to run wear tests to a predetermined sliding distance without stopping the tests, even when galling has occurred. It enables the comparison of wear mechanisms of the tool steels tested under similar contact conditions. The results from the wear tests revealed that wear mechanisms were dependent on the type of material and on the contact pressures. At low contact pressures, it was found that the worn surface was plastically deformed as a result of shear stresses generated during contact. In addition, the worn surface was covered by transferred material from the sheets. Additionally, it is believed that sheet material continuously transfers to the tool surface during sliding contact. Depending on the strength of the interface between the transferred material and the tool surface, the transferred material might stick and accumulate during contact, resulting in a high amount of material pick-ups, or, in the case of a weak interface, the transferred material can detach from the tool surface. It might also lead to a situation where tool material together with transferred material is removed from the tool surface due to adhesive wear. The worn surface of the tested tools consisted in regions where the worn surface was totally covered by adhered material and regions with less amounts of adhered material, and, in such regions, other wear mechanisms like abrasive scratches at the tool worn surface were observed, as shown in
Figure 8.
Moreover, hard phase particles presented in the tested tool steels were partially detached from the steel matrix. As the disc slides against the sheet material and due to the presence of high frictional forces, high shear stresses are generated at the tool steel surface. Subsequently, the subsurface of the tool is plastically deformed, as shown in
Figure 10. The tool steel matrix and its hard phase do not have the same strain limits; therefore, hard phase particles might detach from the matrix material. The detachment of hard phase particles could also be dependent on the adhesion forces between particles and the steel matrix.
At higher contact pressures, it was observed that the tested surface was severely worn, and detachment of hard phase particles for V40 and V8SC was more pronounced. For V40, for instance, full detachment of the hard phase particles, VCN, and fracture of M
6C particles were revealed by SEM analysis at high magnification, as shown in
Figure 9c. In addition, fatigue cracks at the worn surface were also observed for V40. Further examination of the cross-section near the worn surface revealed that VCN particles in V40 were elongated along the sliding direction, and M
6C were broken into smaller pieces. The deformation of the hard phase particles confirms the occurrence of high shear stresses during sliding contact. Breakage of hard phase particles could be the reason for the initiation of fatigue cracks during sliding contact. The formation of the fatigue cracks in the present tests could also be related to low-cycle fatigue. During the reciprocal sliding contact, and due to the presence of high shear stresses, accumulation of strains in the subsurface material takes place. According to the literature [
30], the softer material subjected to cyclic loads at high stresses might accommodate higher strains and, thereafter, be more resistant to fatigue crack initiation [
30]. This hypothesis is in good agreement with the observed cracking behavior of the tool steels in the present study since no fatigue cracks were found for the VSC and V8SC that have a lower hardness compared to V40. The capacity of these two tool steels to accumulate a higher amount of strains during cyclic plastic deformation without cracking could be one reason why fatigue cracks were not found for them. Moreover, it was also noticed that even at high contact pressures of up to 1.7 GPa, the fracture or deformation of the hard phase particles did not take place for these two tool steels.
The elongation of V40 hard phase particles, VCN was observed due to plastic deformation. Contrarily, the VCN particles in VSC showed high stability under high contact pressures. The reason could be due to the chemical composition of these particles since the VCN in VSC does not have the same chemical composition as VCN in V40, as shown in
Table 4. The VCN in VSC has a higher content of carbon, molybdenum and iron compared to the VCN in V40. It has also a lower amount of nitrogen. The selected chemical composition of the VCN in VSC probably provided a better performance of the VSC tool steel when it was exposed to high pressure sliding contact. Therefore, it showed great strength under high contact pressures. The VC in V8SC also showed a high strength under high-pressure sliding contact. However, detachment of these particles from the tool matrix became more pronounced at higher contact pressures, as shown in
Figure 9b. The detachment of the VC in V8SC can be associated with the interaction between steel matrix and the hard phase particles. During reciprocal sliding contact, the surface material is repeatedly sheared as the disk slid forward and backward. Due to plastic deformation, strains are accumulated at the surface material of the disc. The hard phase particles in the softer matrix act as discontinuities for the plastic flow of the tool material. This will result in strain localization in the tempered martensitic matrix around the VC particles, leading to the detachment of these particles during further sliding. I. Picas, et al. [
31] studied the microstructural effects on fatigue crack nucleation in cold work tool steels. In their work, it is reported that fatigue occurred due to the presence of voids that served as crack initiation sites. The voids were created during cyclic loading as strains were localized around the carbides, resulting in the detachment of carbides from the matrix.
Results from the semi-industrial punching tests regarding galling resistance were in a good agreement with the results from SOFS tests. In both cases, the VSC tool steel with VCN particles showed a better galling resistance compared to V8SC tool steel containing carbides. The superior galling resistance of VSC can be associated with its hard phase friction characteristics against sheet material in addition to the hard phase size and its homogenous distribution in the tool matrix. It was found that after 100,000 strokes, the punches made of VSC had only a thin layer of transferred material at a depth of 1.8 mm, as shown in
Figure 13a. In contrast, punches made of V8SC had more adhered material. Furthermore, the adhered material on V8SC punches had a depth of up to 3.4 mm, as shown in
Figure 13b. The development of the material pick-up on the side surface of the punches was investigated earlier [
20]. It was found that the pick-up on the punches developed successively backward from the head of the punches with an increased number of strokes. In the present study, it is believed that material from the sheet was continuously transferred to the punch surface, and further punching resulted in the movement of the pick-up material in the opposite direction of the punching direction. The more pick-up material, the higher the depth of the transferred material. Adhered material on the cutting edges and side surface of the punches alternates the local stress conditions at the punch surface at the contact with the sheet material. During repeated punching, and due to the adhered material, the stress level at the surface might raise and cause the initiation of microcracks. The interaction between the hard phase particles and the martensitic matric can contribute to the initiation of fatigue cracks. Here, in the sliding tests, it was noticed that the detachment of the hard phase particles from the matrix occurred in V8SC steel. This can act as crack initiation sites during the cyclic loading. Further punching will result in the propagation of the initiated microcracks, and, eventually, pieces of punch material will chip out. The stress level is dependent on the amount of adhered material and the adhesion of the interface between the adhered material and the punch surface. As was observed in the present work, the chipping phenomenon occurred only on the V8SC punches. A combination of alternation in stress level at the punch surface due to transfer material and the interaction between the hard phase and martensitic matrix seems to be the main reason for the chipping of V8SC punches, as it is well-known that chipping is highly correlated with mechanical properties of the punch material such as hardness and toughness. A careful balance between these two properties might decrease the risks for chipping during punching [
21]. However, VSC and V8SC have slightly similar hardness and toughness. Therefore, it is believed that the amount of adhered material to the punch surface and detachment of carbides were critical for the chipping of the V8SC punches.